



*»»o» 0 ' V ‘.T.*’ O o. 

0 V* y # O ^\ , \ | 9 | ''K 

iv .A 1 ' ^\r\^<^/i.o ^ c, * 



<y o°" °* 0 v .'*'•* ^ <A % c o«o, 

", o 4 %s$$5Kw' *L C° o ^ 

- ««^^“ •^.o< :$mjt£< ^o / •* 

. » a5 ^ j0 VV »« 

. a a *w*» .{?■ 0 _ *>"^v 0 % \w-f,* 

0 N 0 o) # # / 1 • 

o. 4 <y * * • °, **> \ 

v s*s&& «,. >■ ssm*. \ A «, .<« 

. : j'v 

° <L^°^ °Wf\¥ * A>»*> 

’ * «? cC* 0 W JaS\v , * av v*. • 

* Ar 74 * A <& 


/ '.'*«" .0 v O, ~o. * 

•*•♦->* o* t -‘"« ”*b <4- 

- — /v ^ 2 - * O vl' 

-O ^ j 

* A °^ 

S <tt,' «<* » 

k ^ ~ ** < 0 .^ Cv b «> 

•" JF % **'<> 

* a. ,‘^ftv- «k ^ 

vv 



•. V*’ 


V* ' * * • ’ «u r ^ 

► c 0 w 0 ♦ V*. ri^ • t 4 

0 v) *p. ^ * 


;• > s ^ 






« '•— vj' • 

* 4°, * 


3^ o 


Sr ^ 


A^» O 



\ ^ &>. « v V «* ; 

if. > o *, 

• • ’ «r .. %. *»-• • , 

• ^ f .> /£• % V -V^V. \ V 

g?. e,o^ *= WwM > a va, 

* «7 VJj8Ak * av v, 

■* -CL V ti» * 


/ r % ■ 



/ > l ^ 



<^ V c »*s ^ 


,° ^° ^ 



4°, 



V° r V 

. r\ ^ 

o 


c\ ^ 

^ o N 0 * W 

• • - rv> - . 

"a <V ft ’ 

" *Ov ► 

; :- 

; \ 

- j> '<, ^ • *6 s» a , ^ \* 

o w o rf • • * ,0 '3 y 'o * * 14 ^A- ^v ^ 

% ^ 0^ ^o fty c o« 0j9 <6 ••* -<° 

^ v. fj x a£>/Y?7?->'* O » ^r^Xv . ^ *i* *' 



* < 

\ %*+ ; 
J <£* ^ °oJ 
& o 





«* *3^. 4^ 

O ^^y-V 


«U v>- 

o 4 ' 



• ^ % 


* o 


^o V^ 0 


a A. jk 4-^ tA <>'^c.^ « yN v xp 

/\% ^v 4, ' • • * .6 "o. * - A 

^ f 0 v V^ c° n °+ ^ 

' ^SnXvA^'^^ 'V. v ♦ iJB/?4^5b r ft- 




o K 


, “.ft. ^-C/l/& * 

° .o- *tr;.’ yf 


' 

r o „> 

<^ V ^/> 4 'o«o- ,U 

V . * ‘ VL'-v V 


* Vv 

° 4> ^ * 

* A? V, o 

■ ^7 ' ftik ft 


V ^ / 

r/ 1 9 *» 


,V A ^ v -V - 
« -v Xf> v 


° ^y-V 


> « a 


«•* 



^,> ’ • • » 4 V 7 w 

, t*» ^ 

ft »p /U i* .. , ♦ O, av 

k 1 ** '7, 0 ft Sfc’r/Yfa?-! " O ft 

4° Xi. 


# 

r 

A i 


N *<k (ft 


av ,o 

^ 0 ° n ° -» v 

, A 4 , ^S\\\^ ^ V ft 



O ftS ^rw 

ft A 

’ y \ 


++0* 


• ^ Pft 




AV V* ' 

y 

<* y 


* ' O j * 

V _*°° % * 



4 V ^ w # A - - j 

0* ..‘>*« "*b ,4> ,»■ 

j i.\p/r97^ + O .1 ♦ 

*. ^o ? * 0 ? ' 


' % A 9 ** 
>: * 


+ W* _ rf> 

•'’*’ s # <v'* 

0 ^4. A^ * 

°, W ; 

^ r/ “•‘‘OT^* A*^ 

V A 0' 



i 4 * a^A. 

.• ** ^ • 
A 



' .<& V ‘.‘VVV A V VQSk*,‘ J? 
Jy '?*.'<>•»• A <, *75!t« &* 

>* °o ^ s^L**% ,o* 



,° \\* ; 

■. I 

* -O.V ^ ^ 

«6* \d -o..'* a <* V?V«« ,Cr 

0^ t* V jly£* t\y i£ >6^ t **JL*-» ^o ( 

* .** v ^ a 0 * ... aS / 

_ mxv _ ® ^ ^ 4>~<* iv rj 

* ^'M.WVCs 3 * ~ ^ y , *” TS^y/l/if* v> _ k* 

^ ♦•••* ^0 % *' 1 4$> ^ ***° A 0 ^ * 

O ,fV « * • o, y> \> »* V ^ *cv .fv «» * 

> V, 





SUBJECTS AND 

OUTLINES 

BY 

L. BERKHOF, B. D. 



XI 




EERDMANS-SEVENSMA COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 

GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN 













Copyrighted 1918 by 
1ERDMANS-SEVENSMA CO. 
Crand Rapids, Mich. 


• t 

♦ < • 


APR 26 1920 


©"Cl, A 566869 


PREFACE 


The outlines contained in this volume were prepared 
with a view to the needs of our young people. Member¬ 
ship of the societies to which they belong imposes on 
them the duty to write essays and to prepare debates. 
This is undoubtedly easy for some, but it is just as 
surely rather hard for others. The choice of a subject 
and the selection and arrangement of the material often 
present so many difficulties that they become discour¬ 
aged. 

It was therefore a splendid idea of the publisher to 
have a set of subjects and outlines prepared for their 
guidance in the work. But I confess that, when he in¬ 
vited me to the task, I hesitated very much, because I 
realized that it would prove by no means easy to write 
some hundred and twenty-five outlines on all kinds of 
subjects. And now that the work is finished, I do not 
flatter myself with the idea that these outlines are per¬ 
fect in their kind. I am well aware of the fact that 
they leave room for improvement, but I also believe 
that they are serviceable just as they are, and sincerely 
hope that they may in some measure answer the pur¬ 
pose for which they were written. 

Because the use of these outlines will require some 
study on the part of our young people, I appended a 
list of selected literature covering most of the subjects 
treated in the outlines. Only such books are named 
that can be used to advantage by our youth and that 
are within the financial reach of the societies to which 
they belong, for it seems to me that every society ought 
to make it a point to buy these books, and perhaps some 
others that bear on the subjects of the outlines, either 
all at once or gradually, in order to facilitate the work 
of its members. 

L. BERKHOF 

Grand Rapids, June 17, 1918. 


HISTORY and ARCHAEOLOGY 






5 


\ 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


A. BIBLICAL HISTORY 


I ISRAEL’S DELIVERANCE OUT OF EGYPT 

1. The Condition of Israel in Egypt. 

a. At first the Israelites were evidently prosperous 
in the land of bondage. Some engaged in agri¬ 
culture, others in pastoral work and still others 
acquired the arts and industries of ancient 
Egypt. They maintained their tribal organiza¬ 
tion with its princes and elders and also their 
religion with the rites of circumcision, sacrifi¬ 
cial worship and the keeping of the sabbath. 
Their increase was phenomenal. 

b. A change came about when a new dynasty of 
kings arose that regarded their increment as 
dangerous. These put them to hard tasks and 
plotted their destruction. Nevertheless they 
grew in numbers. At the same time, however, 
their bitter experiences imbued them with a 
deep sense of their degradation and misery and 
prepared them to look for deliverance from 
God. 

2. The Preparation of the Deliverer. 

a. God’s special agent for the deliverance of Israel 
was Moses. He was the son of Amram and 
Jochebed, one of the doomed children of the 
Hebrews, providentially saved from destruc¬ 
tion. 

b. The Lord prepared him for his great task by 
his education at the royal court, where he 
learned all the wisdom and all the achievements 
of the Egyptians; by bringing him in contact 
with his people in their miserable estate, and 
by teaching him patience and absolute depen¬ 
dence on and trust in the God of his fathers in 
the desert of Midian. 




BIBLICAL HISTORY 


c. Yet it was only after Moses confessed himself 
unfit for the great task that he was really quali¬ 
fied for the deliverance of his people, since this 
had to stand out prominently as the work, not 
of man, but of God. 

3 The Deliverance Accomplished. 

a. The Lord first attempted to persuade Pharao 
by arguments and signs to let Israel go. This 
method failed to bring results. 

b. Then He brought His plagues upon the Egyp¬ 
tians, every one of them a blow against Egyp¬ 
tian idolatry. In all of these plagues, except 
the first three, the Lord spared His own people. 

c. We notice that even now Pharao hardened his 
heart time and again. It was only after the 
firstborn of Egypt were slain that he permitted 
Israel to leave. Why was he so obstinate? 
The deliverance out of Egypt stands in typical 
relation to our redemption by Christ. 

d. The deliverance was ever after commemorated 
in the feast of Passover. 


II GIDEON AND THE MIDIANITES 

. 1. The Midianite Oppression. 

a. The Midianites were descendants of Midian, a 
son of Abraham by Keturah. With their allies, 
the Moabites, they fought Israel when it was 
about to enter Canaan. 

b. About two hundred years later they came under 
their great chiefs, Zebah and Zalmunah, and 
encroached on the territory of Israel in central 
Palestine. At first they made their appearance 
merely as marauders and pillagers at the time 
of the harvests; later on they took permanent 
possession of parts of the land. 

c. Israel could not withstand their inroads, because 
it was wanting in the spirit of national unity. 
Defense seemed impossible; therefore the peo¬ 
ple hid in the caves and dens of the mountains. 





BIBLICAL HISTORY 


7 


2. The Calling of Gideon. 

a. Gideon was the son of Joash of Ohprah, in the 
tribe of Manasseh, and was evidently a mighty 
hero, deeply conscious of Israel’s degradation. 

b. While he was threshing in a rather secluded 
spot for fear of the Midianites, the angel of the 
Lord appeared to him and called him to assume 
the leadership among his people. With many 
misgivings he finally yielded to the call, but 
only after it had been confirmed by a sign. 

c. His initial act was a work of reform at home, 
symbolizing a much needed reformation among 
the people in general. 

3. The Army of Gideon. 

a. The new leader recruited his army out of the 
northern tribes, beginning at home. While the 
work was in progress he sought pledges of the 
Lord’s presence with him, which were gra¬ 
ciously given. 

b. When at last the army was gathered, the Lord 
directed a twofold reduction in the number of 
men, after which only a small band of three 
hundred warriors was left. 

4. Victory over the Midianites. 

a. Israel’s camp was probably pitched on one of 
the crests of Mt. Gilboa, while that of Midian 
lay in the valley north of the hill Moreh. 

b. By means of a dream, overheard by Gideon, he 
learned that fear filled the hearts of the enemy. 
Encouraged thereby, he divided his little army 
into three bands and succeeded by means of a 
strategem in terrifying, confusing and routing 
the enemy. 

c. With the aid of Ephraim he pursued the Mi¬ 
dianites across the river Jordan, killed their 
princes and thus delivered Israel. The Lord 
could deliver by a few as well as by many. 





8 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


III DAVID PERSECUTED BY SAUL 

1. Saul’s Envy and David’s Flight. 

a. The success of David in his encounter with Go¬ 
liath and his popularity with the people in¬ 
cited the insane jealousy of Saul, who made re¬ 
peated attempts on the life of his faithful 
servant. 

b. David finally fled from home to Samuel at 
Ramah. Returning from there, he learned 
through Jonathan that Saul had fully deter¬ 
mined to do him evil. He now set out for the 
southern part of Judah, the place of his exile, 
passing through Nob on the way, where he re¬ 
ceived the sword of Goliath. 

2. David and Jonathan. 

a. During the period of secret plotting and of 
murderous assaults a strong and pure friend¬ 
ship developed between the king’s oldest son 
and David. This was not disturbed even when 
Saul intimated to Jonathan that David might 
one day supercede him on the throne. 

b. The royal scion revealed his friendship for the 
humble shepherd-boy of Bethlehem by inform¬ 
ing him of the feelings and movements of Saul, 
by interceding for him with the king, by warn¬ 
ing him against threatening dangers and by 
making a covenant with him. 

3. David in Exile. 

a. After leaving Nob David practically became an 
outlaw and remained such until the death of 
Saul. 

b. He first took refuge with the Philistines. From 
there he escaped to the cave of Adullam, where 
a motley band of about four hundred men gath¬ 
ered unto him. Then he repaired to the wilder¬ 
nesses and mountain caves of southern Judah, 
seeking support for himself and his men from 





BIBLICAL HISTORY 


9 


the inhabitants of those parts, and, in turn, 
protecting their possessions. 

c. Repeated attempts of Saul to capture him, 
coupled with the treachery of the people, finally 
induced him to seek safety once more in the 
land of the Philistines. But even here he re¬ 
mained true to his own people and was provi¬ 
dentially delivered out of an embarrassing po¬ 
sition. He returned from there only to become 
king of Judah. 

4. The Significance of David’s Persecution. 

a. The persecutions were instrumental in teach¬ 
ing David patience, dependence on God, leader¬ 
ship and military prowess. 

b. Moreover, in his humiliation David was a type 
of Christ, who entered upon His kingdom 
through humiliation and suffering. 


IV THE INSURRECTION OF ABSOLOM 

1. Circumstances Leading Up to the Insurrection. 

a. After the murder of his brother Amnon Abso- 
lom fled to the king of Geshur, where he re¬ 
mained for three years. Then his father, 
prompted by Joab, brought him back to Jeru¬ 
salem, but for another two years refused to see 
him. 

b. This led to estrangement and to a desire for 
revenge on the part of Absolom. Finally re¬ 
stored to favor with the king, he began to plot 
rebellion. The fact that he was heir apparent, 
his beauty and his generosity, all contributed 
to his success. 

2. Character of the Insurrection. 

a. When the plot was ripe, Absolom, on a false 
pretense, obtained leave from the king to go 
to Hebron. He chose this city for the seat of 
the rebellion because it was a strong place and 





BIBLICAL HISTORY 


10 


since it had a grievance, viz., that the king had 
rejected it as capital. 

b. From there he sent couriers throughout the 
land to proclaim him king. A great multitude 
gathered around him, and even Ahithophel, one 
of the chief advisors of David, became his coun¬ 
selor. 

3. David’s Flight. 

a. As soon as David heard of the conspiracy he 
fled with his household and those that remained 
faithful to him, leaving ten concubines to keep 
the house. 

b. On the way Ittai joined his company, Zadok 
and Abiathar were sent back to Jerusalem and 
Hushai, too, was requested to return, in order to 
defeat the counsel of Ahithophel. At the Mt. 
of Olives Zibah comes to David with news re¬ 
specting Mephibosheth, and at Bahurim Shimei 
curses the king. 

c. Thanks to the advice of Hushai to Absolom 
and to the information of Jonathan and Aha- 
maaz, David escaped across the Jordan to Ma- 
hanaim. 

4. Absolom’s Defeat in the Forest of Ephraim. 

i 

a. Absolom crossed Jordan with a large host in 
pursuit of his father. David divided his army 
into three parts under the command of Joab, 
Abishai and Ittai. He himself was not per¬ 
mitted to accompany them. 

b. In the forest of Ephraim, in the land of Gilead, 
Absolom’s host was slain and he himself was 
killed after an attempted flight. David lamented 
the death of his son bitterly. 

c. After this decisive battle the people repented 
of their evil way and reinstated David as king. 
In this bitter experience God was visiting upon 
David his great sin, but He was not unmindful 
of His mercy. 




BIBLICAL HISTORY 


11 


V THE DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM 

1. The Causes of the Disruption. 

a. From the divine point of view the division of 
the kingdom was a punishment for Solomon’s 
sins of polygamy and idolatry. The greatness 
of his sin was enhanced by the following facts: 
He was a theocratic king and therefore oc¬ 
cupied a very responsible place; he was warned 
very particularly by Jehovah, and his evil ex¬ 
ample was one that would naturally affect fu¬ 
ture generations. 

b. Historically speaking, the disruption finds its 
explanation in the deep seated tribal jealousy 
and rivalry between Ephraim and Judah 
(Judges 8:1-3; 12:1-6; II Sam. 2:9; 19:42, 
43). It was the harsh and foolish refusal of 
Rehoboam to redress the grievances of the peo¬ 
ple, however, that set the spark to the inflam¬ 
mable material. 

2. The Division an Accomplished Fact. 

a. The ten tribes were ready for separation when 
they presented their request to Rehoboam. No¬ 
tice that they had so arranged matters that 
Rehoboam was to be made king at Shechem, in 
the tribe of Ephraim, and that they immedi¬ 
ately sent for Jeroboam, who was in Egypt, to 
conduct the negotiations for them. 

b. They boldly expressed their dissatisfaction 
with the regime of Solomon and desired relief 
from the heavy burdens imposed upon them. 
Following the advice of foolish counselors, the 
king refused the request. 

c. The inevitable result was that the ten tribes 
tore away from the house of David. A final at¬ 
tempt of Rehoboam to conciliate them failed 
miserably. The king fled to Jerusalem, where 
he reigned over the tribes of Judah and Ben¬ 
jamin, while Jeroboam was crowned as king of 
the ten tribes. 



12 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


3. Significance of the Disruption for the Theocratic 

Kingdom. 

a. According to the ideal set before Israel in the 
law, it was to be a priestly nation, separated 
from the people of the world. 

b. In the time of Solomon, however, it was fast 
developing into a worldly power, entering, as it 
did, into commercial relations with several 
countries. 

c. This sinful tendency had to be checked, and this 
was done effectively in the division of the king¬ 
dom. The kingdom of Judah was henceforth 
preeminently the theocratic kingdom. The dis¬ 
ruption was a work of God, wrought for the 
spiritual welfare of the ancient people of God. 


VI ELIJAH AND THE BAAL-WORSHIP 

1. The Religious Condition of the Northern Kingdom 

in the Days of Ahab. 

a. The calf-worship, introduced by Jeroboam, was 
maintained from generation to generation in 
the kingdom of Ephraim. Moreover, there ex¬ 
isted even from the time of the judges a certain 
Baal-worship among Israel, borrowed from the 
Canaanites (Cf. Judges). 

b. But this Baal-worship received a new impulse 
and was introduced in its worst form in the 
days of Ahab under the influence of the Phoeni¬ 
cian princess Jezebel. Baal was worshiped on 
high places with lascivious rites (I Kings 14: 
24), the sacrifice of children by parents (Jer. 
19: 5) and by kissing the image (I Kings 19: 
18). 

c. The forced introduction of this worship led to 
a persecution of the prophets and of the openly 
professed worshipers of Jehovah. 







BIBLICAL HISTORY 


13 


2. The Reformer Raised up for the Emergency. 

a. God's chosen instrument in the conflict with 

/ 

Baal w r as Elijah, one of the greatest prophets 
of the Old Testament. He was in all probabil¬ 
ity born at Tishbeh in upper Galilee, but dwelt 
temporarily as a stranger in Gilead. 

b. He was especially a prophet of judgment; fire 
and storm were his symbols. Suddenly he ap¬ 
pears on the scene, and just as suddenly he 
again disappears. His zeal expressed itself in 
action rather than in teaching. As a preacher 
of penitance he wore a garment of skin or of 
camel-hair and was girt about his loins with a 
leather girdle, a clear type of John the Baptist. 


3. The Supremacy of Jehovah Maintained. 

a. Suddenly Elijah appears before the erring king 
and predicts a drought of indefinite duration 
as a penalty for the rejection of Jehovah. On 
account of the famine he retires first to the 
brook of Cherith and then to Zarephath in 
Phoenicia, where the Lord provides for him in 
a miraculous way. 

b. In the third year he again showed himself to 
Ahab, who had long sought him in vain. The 
supreme religious test is now arranged. The 
prophets of Baal and those of the Asherah 
gather on Mt. Carmel to represent the side of 
Baal, while Elijah is the sole representative of 
Jehovah. Two sacrifices are prepared, and now 
prayers are offered to both Baal and Jehovah, 
and the God that answers by fire will thereby 
prove his supremacy. Painful and vain are the 
efforts of the priests of Baal, while Elijah's 
simple prayer is immediately answered. Now 
the people acknowledge Jehovah as God and 
destroy the false prophets. 




14 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


VII THE REFORM OF JOSIA 

1. The Necessity of Reform in the Days of King Josia. 

a. Manasseh introduced in Judah the service of 
many strange gods. He worshiped the Baalim 
and Asheroth and even the host of heaven. 

b. He also encouraged the worship on high places, 
which God had forbidden and which was dis¬ 
couraged by several of the pious kings of Judah. 

c. Even in the sacred precincts of the temple he 
built altars for the strange gods, houses for 
Sodomites and stables for the horses devoted to 
the sun. 

2. The Measures of Reform Instituted by Josia. 

a. The altars and the images of the strange gods 
were destroyed wherever they were found, in 
the temple or without. 

b. The high places were removed, not only those 
on which the gods of the nations were wor¬ 
shiped, but also the high places on which Je¬ 
hovah was served. 

c. Money was collected for the restoration of the 
temple, and the house of God was thoroughly 
renovated and purified. The houses of the 
Sodomites and the stables of the horses were 
broken down. 

d. The priests that ministered to the strange 
gods were deposed and even part of them put 
to death. 

3. Comparison of This Reform with Those of Asa, 

Jehoshaphat and Hezekiah. 

a. The reform of Josia was more comprehensive 
than any that had gone before. In previous re¬ 
forms several of the high places remained; now 
they were all removed, even those on which 
Jehovah was worshiped. Moreover, the meas¬ 
ures of reform even extended to the northern 
kingdom. 



15 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


b. This greater thoroughness was, no doubt, in 
part due to the finding of the book of the law 
and the reading of its curses. People had lost 
sight of the sacred books in the days of Manas- 
seh. 

c. The work of reform terminated in a celebration 
of the Passover on such a large scale as had 
not been witnessed since the days of Solomon. 

4. The Inherent Weakness of This and Other Refor¬ 
mation in Judah. 

a. It failed to affect the higher classes and the 
leaders of the people. 

b. It did not issue from nor did it result in a real 
change of heart among the people. 


VIII THE BUILDING OF THE SECOND 

TEMPLE 

1. The Auspicious Beginning of the Work. 

a. By royal decree Cyrus gave the Jews permis¬ 
sion to rebuild the temple and even exhorted 
the Babylonians, in the midst of whom they 
dwelt, to assist them with silver and gold. 

b. The vessels of the temple were again turned 
over to the Jews, freewill offerings brought by 
the people, cedar trees obtained from Lebanon, 
etc. 

c. The work prospered and the foundation of the 
the temple was soon laid, some of the people 
shouting for joy and others weeping with a 
loud voice. 

2. Unlooked-for Interruption of Building Operations. 

a. The interruption was caused by the refusal of 
the Jews to accept the proffered help of the 
Samaritans. Were the Jews justified in taking 
this stand ? 

b. The Samaritans checked the work by harassing 
the people and by hiring counselors against 
them. 





16 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


c. The result was that the Jews finally gave up 
the work and sank into spiritual lethargy; 
finally they were perfectly content to dwell in 
beautiful houses themselves and let the house 
of God lie waste. 

3. The Resumption of the Work. 

a. The work was resumed under the influence of 
the prophets Haggai and Zecharia. Study their 
prophecies. 

b. The progress of the work was once more 
threatened by an inquiry of the governor into 
the legitimacy of their procedure. 

c. The right of the Jews was vindicated, however, 
by the finding of the decree of Cyrus. 

d. Without further delay the temple was now com¬ 
pleted and dedicated to the service of the Lord. 

4. A Comparison of This Temple with That of Solomon 

a. The second temple was, so it seems, like the 
first in size, but could not compare with it for 
beauty. 

b. There was a difference in the furniture: the ark 
was absent, there was but a single table of 
showbread and a single candlestick, and a sim¬ 
ple laver took the place of the brazen sea. 


IX THE JEWISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 

1. The Causes of This War. 

a. Remote causes: 

(1) The unholy struggle for the high-priest- 
hood between Onias III, Jason and Mene- 
laus. 

(2) The harsh measures which Antiochus Epi- 
phanes took against the Jews after his 
disappointments in Egypt. 

(3) The attempt to Hellenize the Jews forcibly. 

b. The immediate cause, viz., the fact that Mat- 
tathias refused to offer to strange gods and 
slew both the man who attempted to do it and 
the king’s messenger. 





BIBLICAL HISTORY 


17 


2. The Heroes Who Led in the Unequal Struggle. 

a. Judas was the great warrier, Jonathan the wily 
diplomat and Simon the wise counselor. 

b. Their position was rather insecure, since they 
were not clothed with any legitimate authority. 

c. Their task was doubly difficult, because many 
of the Jews sided with the Syrians, and since 
there was division in their own ranks. 

3. The Work of Judas. 

a. He worsted the enemies of Israel in several bat¬ 
tles, and was the marvel of his age, until he fell 
in the unequal contest at Eleasa. 

b. He cleansed and restored the temple that had 
been despoiled and desecrated by Antiochus 
Epiphanes. 

c. The first objective for which the Maccabees 
fought, viz., freedom of religion, was attained. 

4. The Exploits of Jonathan. 

a. In the struggle between the Syrian pretenders 
he invariably supported the one from whom he 
could hope to gain the most. 

b. Under his leadership the second aim of the 
Maccabees’ struggle, viz., the supremacy of the 
orthodox over the Greek party, was reached. 

5. The Fruit Reaped in the Days of Simon. 

a. Simon was recognized by the Jews as prince 
and high-priest and thus obtained a legitimate 
official standing. 

b. During his incumbency the Jews acquired po¬ 
litical independence, the third and final aim of 

the Maccabees. 

_ : m 

X THE REIGN OF HEROD THE GREAT 

1. The Early Life of Herod. 

a. Herod the Great was the son of Antipater, gov¬ 
ernor of Idumea. John Hyrkanus incorporated 
the Idumaeans in Israel and compelled them to 
submit to circumcision. 







18 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


b. His father appointed him governor of Galilee. 
In this capacity he exterminated various rob¬ 
ber-bands, for which he was cited before the 
Sanhedrin. 

c. When Antigonus, aided by the Parthians, at¬ 
tempted to take Jerusalem, Herod was com¬ 
pelled to flee to Rome. 

2. Herod Established as King. 

a. After he was appointed king of the Jews, he 
returned to Palestine and subjugated the coun¬ 
try with the aid of the Romans. 

b. He established himself in his kingdom by ef¬ 
fectually removing all claimants of the Has- 
monaean family, by favoring the Pharisees and 
by massacring a large number of the aristocra¬ 
tic Sadducees. 

c. In the struggles of the various Roman trium¬ 
virs for the supremacy he maintained himself 
by always siding with the one that was vic¬ 
torious. 

3. The Family Tragedies of Herod. 

a. There was a sad rivalry between the Idumaean 
and the Hasmonaean branches of his family. 
The calumnies of the former, coupled with the 
pride of the latter, gradually filled him with in¬ 
sane jealousy. 

b. The most important victims of his rage were 
Mariamme, his most beloved wife, and her two 
sons, Alexander and Aristobulus. 

4. Herod as a Builder. 

a. In honor of the Roman emperor he built Cae¬ 
sarea, Sebaste, several temples, etc. 

b. To glorify his own house he built Antipatris, 
Phasaelis, Cypros, etc. 

c. For the Jews he erected a beautiful temple. 

5. Herod’s Relation to the Jews. 

a. Herod made several attempts to establish a 
friendly relation between himself and the 





19 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


Jews, such as helping them in time of need, ex¬ 
empting them from taxes, etc. 
b. These were offset by his mistaken policy in cer¬ 
tain particulars, as the introduction of the spy 
system, his law against thieves, the robbing of 
David’s grave, etc. 

6. Herod’s Death. 

He died conscious of the fact that he was not de¬ 
sired. 


XI THE BIRTH AND INFANCY OF 
JESUS CHRIST 

1. The Birth of Jesus Prophesied and Announced Be¬ 
forehand. 

a. The Old Testament prophets predicted the 
the birth of Christ. Isaiah spoke of the birth 
of Immanuel (7: 14) and of a child that would 
be called, “Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, 
Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace (9:6); 
Micah pointed to Bethlehem as his birthplace 
(5: 2) and Malachi foretold his sudden coming 
as the Messenger of the Covenant (3: 1). 

b. The angel that was sent to Mary announced 
the birth of the Son of God, who would reestab¬ 
lish the throne of David (Luke 1: 33ff). 

c. To Joseph it was revealed in a dream that Mary, 
to whom he was betrothed, would give birth to 
Jesus, the Saviour (Matt. 1:21). 

2. The Civil and Social Status of Jesus’ Parents. 

a. Both Joseph and Mary were of Davidic descent, 
though the proofs for the royal lineage of Jo¬ 
seph are clearer than those for that of Mary. 
It was important that Joseph, though but the 
foster father of Jesus, should be of the house 
of David, since the legal status of a son was de¬ 
termined by that of his father. 

b. They both belonged to the lowly of the land, 
and were evidently in rather straitened circum¬ 
stances. 






20 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 




3. The Time and Place of Jesus’ Birth. 

a. Jesus was born shortly before the death of 
Herod the Great, and during the first Roman 
census in Palestine, probably in the year 750 or 
749 of the city of Rome, i.e. four or five years 
before the beginning of the Christian era. Rome 
was lording it over the Jews, an Idumaean was 
on the throne of Palestine, the people were lost 
in externalism and the Messiah they expected 
was a mighty warrior. 

b. The census led Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem, 
six miles south of Jerusalem, the house of 
bread, the city of David. Describe the place. 
There Jesus was born amid privations. 

4. Incidents Connected with the Infancy of Jesus. 

a. The shepherds, to whom the angel announced 
the birth of Christ, approached Him with ador¬ 
ation. 

b. On the fortieth day Jesus was presented to the 
Lord in the temple and redeemed; the testi¬ 
mony of Simeon and Anna. 

c. From the east the Magi came to honor the new¬ 
born King; Herod’s attempt to kill Him and 
the flight into Egypt. 

d. The return from Egypt to dwell at Nazareth. 


XII JESUS AND THE WOMAN OF 

SAMARIA 


1. The Samaritans. 

a. Western Palestine in Jesus’ days was divided 
into three parts, viz., Judea, Samaria and Gali¬ 
lee. On a journey from Judea to Galilee or 
vice versa one had to pass through Samaria or 
cross the Jordan and take the road through 
Perea, a roundabout way. 

b. The Samaritans were a mixed race, consisting 
of Israelites and colonists of Babylonia, Ha¬ 
math and Arabia (II Kings 17; Neh. 4:7). 




/ 


21 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


c. The relations of the Jews and the Samaritans 
to each other were rather strained since the 
building of the second temple. 

d. The religion of the Samaritans contained sev¬ 
eral elements of the Jewish religion: they were 
monotheists, were circumcized and kept the 
sabbath and the great feasts. 

2. The Journey Through Samaria and the Meeting 

at the Well of Jacob. 

a. The enmity of the Pharisees induced Jesus to 
leave Judea and repair to Galilee. He took the 
shortest road, passing through the broad and 
fertile valleys of Samaria. 

b. In the vicinity of Sychar he came to the well 
of Jacob. This is so called since, according to 
tradition, Jacob dug it. The well is still in 
existence, is about nine feet in diameter and 
seventy-five feet deep. 

c. At this well Jesus had an interesting conversa¬ 
tion with a Samaritan woman in which He re¬ 
vealed himself (1) as the fountain of living 
water, (2) as a prophet who was acquainted 
with the woman’s past and (3) as the Messiah 
whom the Samaritans too expected. 

3. The Fruit of Jesus’ Work in Samaria. 

a. The woman was evidently led to believe in 
Christ and was instrumental in leading many 
of her people to Him. 

b. At the request of the Samaritans Jesus abode 
with them for two days, and as a result many 
of them believed in Him. 

c. The attitude of the Samaritans to Jesus forms 
a striking contrast with that of Jewish leaders 
in Judea. 


XIII THE GALILEAN CRISIS 

1. Jesus’ Popularity in Galilee. 

a. During the first year of His Galilean ministry 
Jesus became very popular. Though the lead- 





22 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


ers in general looked askance at Him, a great 
number of the common people followed Him on 
His journeys. 

b. This popularity was in part, no doubt, due to 
His teachings that were so strikingly different 
from those of the Scribes, but resulted pri¬ 
marily from His beneficent works. 

c. After the feeding of the five thousand it rose 
to its highest pitch and expressed itself in a 
popular demonstration to make Jesus king. 

d. It even excited the envy and hatred of the 
Pharisees of Jerusalem, so that they traveled 
north to counteract the influence of the Lord 
on the masses. 

2. The Discourses at Capernaum (Joh. 6). 

a. In this discourse Jesus intentionally represents 
Himself to the Jews in His spiritual character 
and emphasizes the necessity of spiritual com¬ 
munion with Him. 

(1) He points to the fact that His hearers need 
spiritual rather than temporal food (vss. 
26-40). 

(2) He explains the relation in which He 
stands to God and the relation of faith in 
which men should stand to Him (vss. 
41-51). 

(3) Finally He emphasizes the necessity of ap¬ 
propriating Him by faith (vss. 52-65). 

b. This discourse proved to be the great test of 
discipleship. 

(1) In this test the multitude was found want¬ 
ing ; they were disappointed in their hopes 
of earthly glory and temporal blessings 
and gave up what they had thus far had 
in Jesus. 

(2) The twelve stood the test and remained; 
they acknowledged Him as the source of 
everlasting life, as the Christ and as the 
very Son of God. Even Judas remains, 
though he now understood the true char- 



BIBLICAL HISTORY 


23 


acter of Jesus,—he remains, but as a 
hypocrite. 


XIV THE RAISING OF LAZARUS 

1. Lazarus’ Sickness and Death. 

a. Bethany, a small town on the slope of Mt. 
Olivet, about fifteen furlongs from Jerusalem 
on the way to Jericho, was the home of the 
happy family of Lazarus and his two sisters, 
Martha and Mary. It is now called the village 
of el-Aziriyeh (Lazarus’ village). Jesus occa¬ 
sionally lodged at the home of Lazarus and his 
sisters. 

b. Lazarus was taken with a serious illness, which 
naturally caused great anxiety in the little cir¬ 
cle. Meanwhile Jesus was in Perea, east of the 
Jordan, perhaps a journey of two days’ distance 
from Bethany. Fearing for the life of their 
beloved brother, the sisters send messengers to 
the Lord to inform Him of Lazarus’ sickness. 

c. After Jesus received the intelligence, He in¬ 
tentionally deferred His going to Bethany for 
two days. Jesus knew that Lazarus had al¬ 
ready died, but waited to know the Father’s 
will. 

2. The Journey to Bethany and the Raising of Laza- 

rous from the Tomb. 

a. The disciples tried to dissuade Jesus from re¬ 
turning to Judea, because the Jews were seek¬ 
ing to stone Him, but, when they saw that Je¬ 
sus was determined to go, they desisted. 

b. When He came to Bethany, the mourners were 
there to console the sisters. Martha, hearing 
that Jesus had come, went out to meet Him and 
was assured that her brother would arise again 
from the dead. 

c. At the grave Jesus groaned in the spirit and 
was troubled. He beholds the destructive char¬ 
acter of death, the enemy which He will soon 




24 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


have to face, and He knows that this greatest 
token of His love, the raising of Lazarus, will 
arouse the most bitter hatred. Then He calls 
Lazarus forth out of the grave. 

3. The Result of the Miracle. 

a. There was in the first place a glad reunion; the 
loving little circle was restored. 

b. In the second place many of the Jews that 
were present believed, but others reported this 
to the leaders. 

c. And finally the leaders of the people decided 
formally to put Jesus to death. 

XV THE TRIAL OF JESUS 

1. The Preliminary Trial before Cajaphas. 

a. Jesus was first led to Annas, the father-in-law 
of Cajaphas, the high-priest. This Annas was 
himself an ex-high-priest and a very influential 
Sadducee. He was the dominating power among 
the Jews. 

b. From Annas Jesus was conducted to Cajaphas, 
who may have dwelt in another part of the 
same palace, where Jesus had a private hear¬ 
ing (John 18: 19-24). This examination aimed 
at obtaining (if possible) the materials for the 
formal charge that was to follow. It failed, be¬ 
cause Jesus refused to incriminate Himself and 
simply pointed to His past conduct. 

2. The Formal Ecclesiastical Trial before the San¬ 
hedrin. 

a. At the important news of Jesus’ captivity the 
Sanhedrin hastily convened in the darkness of 
night to try Him. This was decidedly unlawful 
in view of the fact that it was forbidden that 
the Sanhedrin should hold its sessions at night. 

b. Then a futile attempt was made to obtain two 
witnesses (the number required by the law) 
who would concur in a charge against Jesus. 





BIBLICAL HISTORY 


25 


Notice that no formal charge was lodged 
against Jesus when He appeared and that they 
did not allow Him the necessary witnesses to 
prove His innocence. Yet the law required 
this. 

c. Finally the high-priest unlawfully put Him 
under oath to declare whether He was the 
Christ or not. Jesus confessed that He was and 
this confession became the ground for His con¬ 
demnation. 

d. In the morning the full Sanhedrin met to con¬ 
firm and legitimatize the procedure of the pre¬ 
vious night. 

3. The Civil Trial before Pilate. 

a. Before Pilate the Jews intimated that Jesus 
wanted to supplant the emperor. After inves¬ 
tigation the governor declares Jesus innocent. 
Yet the Jews insist on His condemnation. 

b. Pilate made several futile attempts to release 
Jesus, but found it impossible to placate the 
enemies. 

c. Finally he yielded to the Jews and condemned 
the Lord, symbolically clearing himself of 
Jesus' blood. 


XVI THE RESURRECTION OF JESUS 

1. The Darkness Preceding the Resurrection. 

a. The followers of Jesus were surrounded by an 
impenetrable darkness when He was in the 
grave. They had lost a beloved Master, to 
whom they had become greatly attached dur¬ 
ing the years of His public ministry. 

b. Their hopes for deliverance and for the estab¬ 
lishment of the Kingdom were buried with Him 
in the grave. His words of promise, of which 
they had not always grasped the spiritual sig¬ 
nificance, filled them with great expectations. 
His death seemed to disprove His words and to 
shatter their hopes. 





26 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


c. The enemies were victorious and jubilant, since 
they had worsted their antagonist, and in all 
probability they would also attempt to wreak 
vengeance on the little flock that was left as 
sheep without a shepherd. 

2. The Light of the Resurrection dispelling the Dark¬ 
ness. 

a. Notice that we have no description of the resur¬ 
rection itself;—the reunion of body and soul 
cannot be described. The truth of it is abun¬ 
dantly attested in Scripture, however. On the 
third day the King of Life broke the shackles 
of death. 

b. The circumstances attending the resurrection, 
however, are described in detail. There was 
(1) the earthquake and the angel descending 
and opening the tomb, (2) the women proceed¬ 
ing to the grave on an errand of love and as¬ 
sured by the angel that the Lord has arisen 
and (3) the flight of the watchmen that were 
stationed at the grave. 

c. The appearances after the resurrection. The 
Lord appeared at least ten times after He arose 
from the grave, especially in order that His 
disciples might have full assurance of His vic¬ 
tory over death. They needed this, for it would 
be their task to witness to His resurrection. 

3. The Significance of the Resurrection. 

a. It was a testimony of the Father to the satis¬ 
faction given by Christ. 

b. It proved Jesus to be the promised Messiah and 
the very Son of God. 

c. It is an unending source of life for all believers, 
guaranteeing them a blessed resurrection. 

XVII THE FIRST MARTYR 

1. The Appointment of the First Deacons. 

a. Scarcely had the early church entered upon her 
career, when various abuses crept in. After 





BIBLICAL HISTORY 


27 


the deception of Ananias and Sapphira came 
the complaint of the Grecian Jews that their 
widows were neglected in the daily ministra¬ 
tion. This led to the appointment of the first 
seven deacons. 

b. To judge by their names, the men that were 
appointed were all Hellenistic Jews. This was 
very appropriate in view of the fact that the 
complaint pertained to the Grecian widows. 

c. Stephen stands out prominently among the 
seven; we are told particularly that he was a 
man full of faith and of the Holy Spirit. This 
is undoubtedly emphasized in order to prepare 
us for the following history. 

2. The Opposition to Stephen and His Arrest. 

a. Stephen did not limit himself to the work of 
serving tables, but also preached, wrought mir¬ 
acles and disputed with the Jews. It seems 
that he addressed especially the unconverted 
Hellenistic Jews, for it was among them that 
opposition was aroused. 

b. The cause of this opposition lay partly in the 
wonders wrought by Stephen and partly in his 
skill in disputing with the Jews. They could not 
withstand the wisdom and the Spirit by which 
he spoke, but would not admit defeat. 

c. Seeing no other way out, they suborned men, 
who bore false witness against him, and then 
cause his arrest. The accusation was that he 
spoke blasphemously against the temple and 
the law. 

3. The Defense of Stephen. 

a. On the one hand he shows that his position was 
entirely in harmony with the view of the Old 
Testament. 

b. On the other hand, turning the tables on his 
opponents, he proves that they and their fath¬ 
ers had all along been enemies of the law and 
had a false conception of the temple. 





28 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


4. The Martyrdom of Stephen. 

a. He was cast out of the city and stpned. He 
died with a prayer for his enemies on his lips. 

b. The Jews put him to death unjustly, for (1) 
the accusation against him was false, (2) he 
was not condemned by the court and (3) the 
Jews had no right to put anyone to death. 

c. This martyrdom greatly facilitated the spread 
of Christianity. The blood of this martyr be¬ 
came the seed of the Church. 


XVIII PAUL’S YOUTH AND CONVERSION 

1. The Birth and Training of Paul. 

a. His parents were Jews of the Dispersion, and 
were evidently in comfortable circumstances, 
for (1) his father was a citizen of Tarsus, 
where only the wealthy had the rights of citi¬ 
zenship, and (2) they were able to send Paul 
to Jerusalem to complete his education. At 
home he, no doubt, received the usual educa¬ 
tion of a Jewish child. 

b. He was born and bred at Tarsus, where the 
Greek language was spoken, where Greek cus¬ 
toms prevailed, and where philosophy was in 
the air. It was but natural that the circles in 
which he moved should make a deep and lasting 
impression on the precocious youth. 

c. His Jewish education was completed at the feet 
of Gamaliel, one of the greatest rabbis of his 
day. Thus Paul received an intimate acquaint¬ 
ance with rabbinical lore, so that he could meet 
the Jews on their own ground, and also became 
a skilled dialectician. 

2. Paul, the Persecutor. 

a. We meet him first among the witnesses at the 
stoning of Stephen. This fact goes far to prove 
that he was one of the most prominent accus¬ 
ers of that first martyr. 





BIBLICAL HISTORY 


29 


b. Next we see him as the fiery leaders of the per¬ 
secutors at Jerusalem, dragging men and 
women out of their houses and committing 
them to prison. He strove to make them blas¬ 
pheme, and when they were condemned to 
death, he consented to it. 

c. All the while, however, he had a good con¬ 
science. It was his zeal for the law that 
prompted him to persecute the Church. He 
wanted to prohibit the spreading of Christian¬ 
ity in the Dispersion. 

3. Paul’s Conversion. 

a. After Paul had finished his work at Jerusalem, 
he wanted to continue it at Damascus; for this 
he sought and obtained authority from the San¬ 
hedrin. 

b. On the way to Damascus the Lord appeared to 
him, showed him the error of his way and led 
him to a complete surrender. He now willingly 
became an enthusiastic soldier of the cross. 

c. The conversion of Paul is one of the greatest 
events in the history of the Church, since Paul 
was the chosen instrument to plant the seed of 
the Gospel throughout the Roman empire. 


XIX THE COUNCIL OF JERUSALEM 

(Acts 15) 

1 The Incidental Cause of the Council. 

a. Paul and Barnabas had taught everywhere on 
the first missionary journey that the Gentiles 
who turned to Christianity were not subject to 
the law of circumcision. After their return to 
Antioch in Syria they naturally continued to 
teach this. 

b. In course of time, however, false brethren came 
from Jerusalem to Antioch and insisted that 
the Gentiles should submit to circumcision be¬ 
fore they entered the Church. This threatened 
to blight the work of Paul and Barnabas. 


t 




30 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


c. The church of Antioch wisely decided to sub¬ 
mit the question to the mother church at Jeru¬ 
salem, for (1) it was the cradle of Christianity, 
(2) it knew the standing of the brethren who 
sought to reverse the teachings of the mission¬ 
aries and (3) it would not be biased in favor 
of the exemption of the Gentiles. 

2. The Discussion Preceding the Decision of the 

Council. 

a. The Council proper was preceded by private 
conferences of the delegates from Antioch with 
leaders of the church at Jerusalem. 

b. The Council was constituted of the apostles, 
the elders, the delegates and the members of 
the church at Jerusalem. 

c. After some preliminary discussion or question¬ 
ing by the people in general, the leaders gave 
their opinion: (1) Peter pointed to the directions 
which he had received from God; (2) Paul and 
Barnabas called attention to the fact that God 
had approved their work by miracles and signs, 
and (3) James interpreted the voice of proph¬ 
ecy to prove the legitimacy' of receiving the 
Gentiles in the Church, and that without cir¬ 
cumcision, of which the prophet makes no men¬ 
tion. 

3. The Decision of the Council 

a. The Council came to its decision under the 
guidance of the Holy Spirit. 

b. It exempted Gentile Christians from circum¬ 
cision. 

c. It required that these Christians should abstain 
from things sacrificed to idols, from blood, from 
things strangled and from fornication. 

d. It delivered its decisions to the church of An¬ 
tioch by special messengers. 




BIBLICAL HISTORY 


31 


XX THE WORK OF PAUL AT EPHESUS 

1. The Preaching of the Gospel at Ephesus. 

a. We notice that Paul on his missionary tours 
always selects the most important cities as the 
centers of his labors. Ephesus was no excep¬ 
tion to the rule. It was the capital of Asia, to 
which people of the entire province flocked on 
several occasions; it was the seat of the wor¬ 
ship of Diana and thus attracted worshipers 
from all the neighboring country; it was also 
an important commercial center, a meeting 
place of East and West. 

b. Paul first of all meets certain disciples of John 
the Baptist there, whom he taught and baptized 
in the name of Jesus and to whom he imparted 
the Holy Spirit. 

c. The apostle preached the Gospel first in the 
synagogue of the Jews, and when they resisted 
him, he taught the people for over two years in 
the school of a certain Tyrannus. The re¬ 
sult of his labors was that all Asia heard the 
word. 

2. The Conflict with the Ephesian Magicians and Ex¬ 
orcists. 

a. The worship of Diana and the practice of 
magic were closely connected. There were 
charms or amulets known as Ephesian let¬ 
ters, by which a person was assured of success 
in all his undertakings. These were sold by 

- exorcists who claimed for them miraculous 
power. 

b. The sons of Sceva, though Jews, also belonged 
to this class. Seeing the work of Paul, they at¬ 
tempted to imitate it, but were attacked by the 
man out of whom they sought to cast an evil 
spirit. 

c. The result was that many of the magicians 
burned their books and several of their follow¬ 
ers accepted the word of Paul. 





32 


BIBLICAL HISTORY 


3. The Great Tumult Incited by Demetrius. 

a. There were also silversmiths at Ephesus, who 
made and sold little temples of Diana, a very 
lucrative trade. The preaching of Paul nat- 
uraly injured the trade greatly; hence Deme¬ 
trius stirred up his fellow-craftsmen against 
Paul. 

b. The tumult soon affected the whole city and 
caused hopeless confusion and blind rage, in 
which Paul and his co-laborers were threatened. 

% w 

c. The uproar was finally brought to a happy ter¬ 
mination by the efforts of the town clerk. After 
this Paul left Ephesus for Macedonia. 



/ 







BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


33 


B. BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


I MARRIAGE AMONG THE HEBREWS 

1. The Character of Marriage. 

a. According to divine appointment marriage is 
the union of one man and one woman, a union 
of love, for mutual help and for the propagation 
of the race. 

b. The ideal of marriage was soon disregarded; 
even among Israel it was not maintained in its 
purity. Polygamy and concubinage were freely 
practiced, though they were discouraged by the 
law. 

c. The marriage of near relatives was forbidden 
among Israel, except in the case of the levirate 
marriage. It was ordained that one should 
marry the wife of his brother in case the latter 
died childless. Furthermore, it was forbidden 
in Israel to intermarry with the seven Canaan- 
itisch nations. 

d. The marriage tie could be dissolved legitimately 
only by death. The law permitted, but also dis¬ 
couraged divorce; Jesus allowed it only on the 
ground of adultery. Among Israel the husband 
only had the right of divorce. 

2. Betrothal and Wedding Ceremonies. 

a. Betrothal. The main element in betrothal was 
the fixing of the dowry that was paid to the 
parents of the bride. For the rest it consisted 
in the acceptance before witnesses of the terms 
of the marriage contracted for. The only for¬ 
mality connected with it was that the groom 
handed the bride a piece of money as he spoke 
the words: “Be thou consecrated to me!” Be¬ 
trothal was regarded as binding; the contract- 





34 


BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 




parties could be liberated only by a process of 
divorce. 

b. Wedding ceremonies. Here we distinguish: (1) 
The wedding procession, in which the bride¬ 
groom and his friends went, usually by night, 
to fetch the bride and her attendants to the 
home of the groom. (2) The marriage supper 
at the home of the bridegroom. This was pre¬ 
pared for the friends of both bride and groom. 
The festivities generally lasted seven days, 
sometimes twice seven. (3) The introduction 
into the nuptial chamber. In the evening the 
bride was escorted to the nuptial chamber by 
her parents, and the bridegroom by his friends. 

3. The Symbolical Significance of Marriage. 

In the Old Testament marriage is regarded as a 
symbol of the spiritual relation between Jehovah 
and Israel; in the New Testament, of that between 
Christ and His Church. 


II EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

1. The Aim of Education Among Israel. 

Education among Israel was, no doubt, partly 
meant to fit the children for their secular position 
and calling, but its great aim was to introduce them 
into the parental religion. The child was above 
all to become the faithful servant of Jehovah. 

2 The Educational Agencies. 

a. In the earliest period the education of the He¬ 
brew children was essentially domestic. The 
education of the girls was entrusted entirely to 
the mother, while that of the boys after their 
fourth or fifth year devolved on the father. In 
some of the wealthy families tutors were en¬ 
gaged. 

b. About the year 70 B. C. it was ordained that 
schools for the instruction of children should 
be established in every city and town of any 
importance. Scribes were the regular teachers. 






BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


35 


c. After completing the work in one of these 
schools, the boys that desired the advantages 
of higher education would visit one of the many 
rabbinical colleges. Every great rabbi had his 
own school. 

3. The Subject-matter of Instruction. 

a. The study of the law was naturally the most 
important element in the education of the child. 
The law in this connection means the five books 
of Moses. These were regarded as God's reve¬ 
lation par excellence. 

b. Though we have no definite data, it appears 
from the Old Testament that some attention 
was also paid to reading and writing. Later 
Jewish writings clearly show these to have been 
part of the child's training. 

c. In later times considerable attention was also 
paid to the traditions of the Jews, and in rab¬ 
binical schools especially to rabbinical lore. 

4. The Method of Education. 

a. The scribes placed great emphasis on the neces¬ 
sity of constantly repeating what was being 
learned. With them repetition was indeed the 
soul of study. 

b. Moreover, they insisted on it that their pupils 
should memorize faithfully and reproduce lit¬ 
erally what their teachers had taught them. 


Ill THE MILITARY SYSTEM IN ISRAEL 
1. The Army. 

a. The whole male population over twenty years 
of age, as far as it was able to bear arms, was 
subject to military duty. The upper age limit 
of such service is not known. Certain classes 
could be excused from military service tem¬ 
porarily (Deut. 20:5-9; 24:5). At first the 
army consisted of infantry only; a distinct 
cavalry division was first established by Solo¬ 
mon. 





36 


BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


b. We find the first traces of a standing army in 
Saul's time. David enlarged it almost a hun¬ 
dredfold, choosing 24,000 men of each tribe. 
The tribes as a rule folowed the tribal banner, 
while there was a commander-in-chief over the 
whole host. 

c. Besides the host there was in David's time a 
separate body consisting of heroes, probably 
the valiant men that accompanied the son of 
Jesse during his persecution by Saul. We also 
meet time and again with the Cherethites and 
Pelethites, the bodyguard of the king. 

2. The Weapons. 

a. The weapons of defense were the shield, made 
of a frame of wood or wickerwork, covered with 
hide, sometimes round and sometimes oblong; 
the helmet, that was introduced by King 
Uzziah, and the armour, which was, however, 
rare among Israel. 

b. Among the weapons of offense the bow and ar¬ 
row and the sling were the most prominent. 
The Benjamites were skilled in the use of these 
weapons. But there were also swords, spears 
and javelins. The chariot too was used in 
some parts of the country. 

3 The Method of Warfare. 

a. Actual warfare was usually preceded by a con¬ 
ference, looking to a peaceable settlement of 
difficulties. Moreover, before the army went 
out, prayers and sacrifices were offered. 

b. Strategies of various sorts were often resorted 
to, including the ambuscade, feints and circum¬ 
vention or attacks in the rear. The fighting 
was mostly hand to hand. 

c. A fortified city was difficult to take, since it was 
very dangerous to venture near the wall. In 
the attack catapults, battering-rams and move- 
able towers were used. Sometimes the walls 
were scaled. 




BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


37 




d. The Hebrews, as compared with other peoples 
of antiquity, were noted for their humane 
treatment of the prisoners of war. This was 
due, no doubt, to the spirit of their law. 


1 . 


IV PASSOVER AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE 


The Institution of the Passover. 



a. The Passover was instituted in the night of 
Israel's departure out of Egypt. This was in 
the evening of the fourteenth of Nisaan, the 
first month of the ecclesiastical year. 

b. According to the original institution every 
household of Israel had to take a male lamb, 
without blemish and a year old, kill it at even 
on the fourteenth of Nisan, sprinkle of its 
blood on the side-posts and lintels of their 
houses, roast it whole, and then eat it with un¬ 
leavened bread and bitter herbs (Ex. 12). 
Moreover, they were to eat it staff in hand and 
ready for the journey. 


2. The Preparation for Eating the Passover in the 

Time of Christ. 

a. On the evening of the thirteenth of Nisan all 
leaven was carefully removed from the dwell¬ 
ings of the Israelites, and unleavened cakes 
were baked. 

b. About the time of the evening sacrifices on the 
following day the lambs, that had already been 
set aside on the tenth of the month, were taken 
to the temple and killed. 

c. A festive meal was prepared, consisting of the 
lamb, unleavened bread, bitter herbs and wine. 

3. The Routine of the Feast. 

a. After the head of the house offered a prayer of 
thanksgiving the first cup of wine was emptied 
and the host washed his hands. 





38 


BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


b. The bitter herbs, moistened with salt water, 
then eaten, the dishes removed and the second 
cup filled. 

c. In answer to the query of his son as to the sig¬ 
nificance of the night, the father would then 
narrate the institution of the feast. 

d. The first part of the Hallel, consisting of the 
psalms 113, 114, was then sung and the hands 
of all the guests were washed. 

e. The lamb was now carved and eaten, together 
with unleavened bread, and the third cup, the 
cup of blessing emptied. This cup was used by 
Jesus for the institution of the Lord's supper. 

f. The meal was continued, each one eating as 
much as he liked, but always last of the lamb. 

g. A fourth cup followed and the second part of 
the Hallel was sung, viz., the psalms 115-118. 

4 The Significance of the Passover. 

a. Historically the feast was a reminder of the 
deliverance of Israel out of Egypt. 

b. Typically the Pschal lamb pointed forward to 
Christ, our Passover, who delivers His people 
from the bondage of sin by the sacrifice of Him¬ 
self. 


V THE SYNAGOGUE AND ITS WORSHIP 

1. The Origin of the Synagogues. 

a. In all probabiity the synagogues originated in 
the exile. It was on account of their neglect and 
transgression of the law that the people were 
led into captivity. The consciousness of this 
fact led them to a renewed study of the law, 
and this, in turn, gave rise to community cen¬ 
ters for reading and interpreting the law. 

b. It may be regarded as doubtful whether the 
Old Testament contains any references to 
synagogues, though it is possible that we have 
one in Ps. 74: 8. 





BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


39 


2. The Structure of the Synagogues. 

a. As to their exterior, the synagogues were gen¬ 
erally rectangular, but sometimes round. They 
were usually so built that on entering them the 
worshipers would face Jerusalem. 

b. The interior of the synagogues was made to 
correspond roughly with the temple and its di¬ 
visions. The place where the people stood or 
(in later times) sat answered to the court of 
the temple, the platform on which the pulpit 
stood represented the Holy Place and the ark 
or chest that contained the sacred rolls cor¬ 
responded to the Holy of Holies. 

3. The Officials of the Synagogues. 

a. A board of elders managed the affairs of the 
synagogue. They generally sat facing, not the 
reader or speaker, but the people. 

b. The so-called “ruler of the synagogue” directed 
the worship by appointing or requesting some 
of those present to pray, speak, read, etc. 

c. There was also one or more attendants that 
brought the rolls to the reader and replaced 
them in the ark, taught the youth, opened and 
closed the synagogue, etc. 

d. Finally there were also dispensers of alms and 
ten men of leisure that were present at every 
service. 

4. The Service of the Synagogues and Their Signifi¬ 
cance for Christianity. 

a. The order of service was as follows: (1) the re¬ 
citing of the Shema; (2) prayer; (3) the read¬ 
ing of the law; (4) the reading of the prophets; 
(5) a discourse; (6) the benediction. 

b. The synagogues had great significance for the 
spread of Christianity. Paul always made them, 
as much as possible, the center of his labors, 
since they enabled him to reach both Jews and 
Gentiles. 



40 


BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


VI THE SCRIBES AMONG ISRAEL 

1. The Origin of the Scribes as a Separate Class. 

a. The scribes originated in the priesthood. We 
notice that even after the exile the first scribes 
were priests. They came to the front as a re¬ 
sult of the renewed interest in the study of the 
law. 

b. When in the Greek period the priests greatly 
neglected their duty as students of the law 
and teachers of the people, many laymen de¬ 
voted themselves to this work and gradually 
formed a class distinct from the priests. In 
course of time a certain rivalry developed be¬ 
tween the priests and the scribes. 

2. The Special Task of the Scribes. 

a. They were first of all students of the law, which 
they considered as the most important part of 
God’s reveation. As such it was their duty to 
preserve the law, to develop it according to the 
exigencies of the times and to explain it with 
reference to all sorts of concrete cases. 

b. In the second place they were also teachers of 
the youth of Israel. The subject-matter of 
their instruction was again above all else the 
law. They usually gave their instruction in 
the synagogues and were not allowed to accept 
pay for their work. 

c. Finally they served as lawyers and judges, guid¬ 
ing the people in the application of the law to 
concrete cases. Theoretically their require¬ 
ments were very exacting, but in practice they 
found many loopholes that offered avenues of 
escape. 

3. The Reputation and Character of the Scribes. 

a. The common people greatly honored the 
scribes. Children had to respect them even 
more than father and mother. It was custom¬ 
ary to address them as rabbi, a form of address 
that afterwards developed into a title. 





41 


BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


b. Their real character is described by our Lord, 
who stigmatized them as hypocrites, blind lead¬ 
ers of the blind, burdening the people, perse¬ 
cuting God’s faithful servants and enemies to 
the true knowledge of God. 


VII PHARISEES AND SADDUCEES 

1. The Names of These Parties. 

a. The name Pharisee means “the separated one,” 
and probably originated with the enemies of 
the party as an expression of contempt. They 
were so called because, in distinction from the 
common people, they carefully guarded against 
legal contamination. 

b. The name Sadducee is evidently derived from 
Zadok, the name of the high priest that served 
at the sanctuary in the days of David. 

2. The Origin of These Parties. 

a. The Pharisean party gradually developed out 
of another party, called the Chasidim, i.e., the 
pious ones. These were the people who, in the 
days of the Maccabees, were zealous for the 
law of the Lord. The change of name seems 
to have been effected in the days of John Hyr- 
kanus, when another party arose that was op¬ 
posed to them and when the government was 
also hostile to them. 

b. The Sadducean party may be regarded as a 
development of the earlier Hellenistic party, 
that took no part in the Maccabean struggle, 
but rather welcomed the influence of Greek cus¬ 
toms and religion on the Jewish nation. 

3. The Character of These Parties. 

a. The Pharisees formed a sort of community; 
hence they preferred to call themselves Cha- 
berim, i. e., companions. As members of this 
community they undertook by oath to keep 
themselves pure from Levitical defilement and 





42 


BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


to pay all tithes faithfully. They placed great 
emphasis on the external fulfillment of the law. 
Most of the scribes belonged to this party. 

b. The Sadducees, on the other hand, were little 
concerned about the holiness of the nation, and 
delighted to see it take its place in the whirl of 
world politics. They were the liberals among 
the Jews. The aristocrats of both the people 
and the priests belonged to this party. 

4. The Doctrinal Differences of These Parties. 

a. The Pharisees accepted as authoritative not 
only the law of Moses, but also the so-called 
“oral tradition,” i. e., the traditions of the rab¬ 
bis. The Sadducees, on the other hand, re¬ 
jected all later additions to the law of Moses. 

b. The Pharisees believed in predestination, but 
not to the exclusion of the free will of man, in 
the resurrection and in the existence of spirits. 
The Sadducees, however, rejected the doctrine 
of predestination and placed great emphasis 
on the free will of man. Moreover, they denied 
the resurrection and the existence of spirits. 


VIII THE GREAT SANHEDRIN OF THE 

JEWS 

1. The Origin of the Great Sanhedrin. 

a. According to the writings of the rabbis the 
great Sanhedrin was the continuation of the 
seventy elders that were appointed by Moses 
to assist him in the work (Num. 11), and was 
identical with the great court of Jehoshaphat 
at Jerusalem. But the appointment of the sev¬ 
enty was temporary, and the court of Jehosha¬ 
phat was not like the Sanhedrin, a sort of 
senate. 

b. In fact, the Sanhedrin developed out of the 
Gerousia at Jerusalem. We meet with this 
body first in the Greek period. It was a council 

v 





BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 


43 


consisting of aristocratic elders, especially of 
the priestly class, and had both administrative 
and judicial powers. Out of it the Sanhedrin 
evolved in the century immediately before the 
birth of Christ. 

2 Composition of the Sanhedrin. 

a. According to the Mishna the Sanhedrin con¬ 
sisted of 71 members. Their manner of ap¬ 
pointment is not known, but they were inducted 
into the council by the laying on of hands. 

b. Three classes were represeted in the Sanhe¬ 
drin, viz., the chief priests, the scribes and the 
elders. Their relative proportion was not al¬ 
ways the same; at one time the chief priests 
and at another the scribes were in the majority. 

c. The high priest was president of the Sanhedrin. 
Moreover, there were two notaries, of whom 
one registered the reasons for acquittal, the 
other those for condemnation. The New Tes¬ 
tament also speaks of constables (Matt. 5: 25). 

3. The Jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin. 

a. It was the supreme court for all cases of im¬ 
portance,—civil, criminal and religious—, and 
could arrest, try and condemn criminals to any 
punishment; that of death being excepted in 
the time of Christ. Twenty-three constituted 
a quorum, and a majority of one was necessary 
for acquittal, while a majority of two was re¬ 
quired for condemnation. 

b. In the days of Herod the Great the authority 
of the Sanhedrin extended as far as the king¬ 
dom, but in the days of the procurators it was 
limited to Judea, though its decisions on im¬ 
portant matters were voluntarily received by 
all Jews as final. 




C. CHURCH HISTORY 


I LUTHER AT THE DIET OF WORMS 

1. The Circumstances that Led to the Summons to 

Worms. 

a. The fact that Luther in the theses which he 
posted on the door of the Church of All Saints 
at Wittenberg attacked the authority of Rome 
and of the priesthood. 

b. The address of Luther to “the Christian Nobles 
of the German Nation/' in which he urged them 
to repudiate the interference of the pope in 
civil affairs and to start the work of the refor¬ 
mation. 

c. The burning of the papal bull of excommunica¬ 
tion on the 10th of December, 1520. By doing 
this he naturally cast off his allegiance to the 
Roman church. 

d. The consequent demand of the pope that the 
emperor should put Luther under the ban of 
the empire. The emperor was willing to do this 
by an imperial edict, but the princes persuaded 
him not to condemn Luther unheard: 

2. Luther’s Courageous Appearance at the Diet. 

a. The imperial herald, Sturm, summoned him to 
the diet and accompanied him on the way. Safe 
conduct was promised both to and from the 
diet. 

b. All along the way the Reformer was greeted 
with enthusiasm. There were also voices, how¬ 
ever, that warned him not to trust the em¬ 
peror’s promises of safe conduct. 

c. The assembly was a very imposing one. The 
emperor was seated on his throne and w r as sur- 





CHURCH HISTORY* 


45 


rounded by magistrates, princes and nobles. 
The sight dazed Luther a little at first. 

d. To the question whether he would retract what 
was written in his books he did not give an im¬ 
mediate reply. He asked for time to frame an 
answer. The following day he said that he 
could not retract anything until it was proved 
contrary to Scripture and to right reason. 

3. Luther’s Disappearance after the Diet. 

a. Some members of the Diet urged the arrest of 
Luther, but the German princes would not 
stand for such an unfaithful act. 

b. On the way back Luther was intercepted by 
soldiers of Frederic, the Elector of Saxony, who 
carried him to the Wartburg. 

c. His stay at the Wartburg was a great blessing 
for the German people, since it gave them the 
Bible in their own language. 


II CALVIN AND THE LIBERTINES 

1 The Character of Calvin’s Work at Geneva, 

a. When Calvin came to Geneva, he found it a 
city in which the work of reformation was in¬ 
deed begun by Farel, but above all a pleasure- 
loving and even licentious city. The stern meas¬ 
ures of Farel had generated intestine strife. 

b. The great ideal at which Calvin aimed was not 
only the preaching of the Gospel in its purity, 
but the founding of a Christian commonwealth. 
Protestantism was established in Geneva by a 
vote of the citizens, and the ban was placed on 
many amusements. 

c. To make the measures of reform more effective 
a rigid system of discipline was introduced, 
both civil and ecclesiastical. Civil discipline 
was administered by the civil council; ecclesias¬ 
tical by the consistory. 




46 


CHURCH HISTORY 


2. The Character of the Libertines and Their Oppo¬ 
sition to Calvin. 

a. The Libertines were composed of two parties: 
(1) The Patriots, who resented the influence 
of the French in their city, and (2) the Spirit¬ 
uals, a pantheistic sect, who were pleasure- 
seekers even to the extent of advocating free 
love. 

b. The first party opposed Calvin on political 
grounds, the second hated his religion. Both 
resisted every encroachment on their personal 
freedom and love of amusement. They hated 
the evangelical discipline. 

c. Their method of procedure against Calvin was 
in harmony with their character. They nick¬ 
named the Reformer Cain, gave his name to the 
dogs, fired fifty shots before his bed-chamber 
one night, threatened him in the pulpit and 
even attempted to wrest the sacred elements 
from his hands at the communion table. 

3. The Victory of Calvin. 

a. For a time it seemed as if the enemies would 
be victorious; Calvin and Farel were both ban¬ 
ished from Geneva. 

b. The authorities of Geneva found it impossible, 
however, to manage affairs without Calvin. 
Hence they recalled him in 1541. After some 
hesitation he returned and then began a rigid 
application of disciplinary measures to the 
enemy. Calvin’s life was often threatened, but 
he persisted and the council sustained him. 

c. In 1555 the victory of Calvin was practically 
complete. From that time on he had things 
very much his own way, and Geneva became 
the marvel of Europe. 





CHURCH HISTORY 


47 


III JOHN KNOX AND THE SCOTTISH 

REFORMATION 

1. Knox and the Beginning of the Reformation in 

Scotland. 

a. Knox was of obscure parentage and was edu¬ 
cated for the priesthood. He took holy orders 
about 1530. Soon after that he began to feel 
the influence of evangelical doctrines, and un¬ 
der the spiritual guidance of Wishart he broke 
with the church of Rome. 

b. Later he became a private tutor of boys. When 
Cardinal Beaton, the chief supporter of the 
government of James, was assassinated, Knox, 
though he had no part in this bloody deed, 
joined the enemies of Beaton in the castle of 
St. Andrews. This was taken by the French, 
and Knox became a galley slave. 

c. After his release in 1549 Knox returned to 
Scotland, but when Mary came to the throne, 
there was no place for him in his native land. 
Wandering on the continent, he at last came to 
Geneva and under the powerful influence of 
Calvin. Eighteen months later he was permit¬ 
ted to return to Scotland. 

d. On his return Knox thundered against idolatry 
and denounced the mass as the worship of a 
false god. The people seized the-occasion to 
destroy images and monasteries. Soon the Re¬ 
former was forced to leave the country again 
and accepted a call to Geneva. When he re¬ 
turned in 1559, parliament adopted an evan¬ 
gelical Confession of Faith, and the first Gen¬ 
eral Assembly, a corresponding Book of Disci¬ 
pline. 

2. The Conflict between Knox and Mary Stuart. 

a. Mary Stuart was the daughter of James V. 
Her husband was Frances II, the king of 
France. After two years she became a widow. 
Her two later marriages led her on the down- 



« 


48 CHURCH HISTORY 


ward path and finally brought her on the scaf¬ 
fold. 

b. She was a beautiful woman, full of vigor, en¬ 
ergy and tenacity of purpose, with perfect self- 
possession and indomitable courage. She set 
herself the task to trample down the work of 
reformation in Scotland. 

c. In order to accomplish her purpose she refused 
to ratify the acts of parliament establishing 
the Reformed religion; she won over to her 
side many powerful nobles; she tried to intimi¬ 
date Knox, to win him by flattery, to soften 
him by tears. 

d. Knox was adamant, however. Mary even feared 
him, especially his prayers; finally she was 
compelled to flee to England, where, after long 
imprisonment, she was executed in 1587. The 
principles of Knox were victorious and set a 
permanent stamp on the church of Scotland. 


IV THE SOCIETY OF JESUS 
1. Its Founder. 

a. The founder of the Society of Jesus was Igna¬ 
tius Loyola, a Spaniard of noble birth. While 

. he was fighting against the French at Pampe- 
luna, he was wounded. During the following 
illness he decided to devote himself to Christ. 

b. At first he yielded himself to a life of ascetic 
severity. But he longed for action and there¬ 
fore turned his back on asceticism. At the age 
of 33 he began the study of theology. While 
studying at Paris, he gathered around him sev¬ 
eral congenial spirits. 

c. In Venice they were ordained priests. They 
first intended to go to Palestine to convert the 
Saracens, but then they learned that they could 
serve the church of Rome best by fighting the 
heretics in Europe, and therefore devoted them¬ 
selves to this task. 





CHURCH HISTORY 


49 


2. Its Organization. 

a. The organization founded by Ignatius was 
headed by a general, he himself being the first, 
who was surrounded by an inner circle of five. 
These were chosen from the professed, the ex¬ 
perienced Jesuits. Below them were the coadju¬ 
tors, or graduated scholars. The next lower 
order was that of the scholastics, the practical 
workers, and finally there were the novices. It 
was a very compact organization. 

b. The society demanded of its members unques¬ 
tioning obedience. They were to have no will 
of their own, but to follow implicitly the direc¬ 
tions of their superiors. If they were sent out 
to a tribe of savages anywhere on the globe, 
they had to depart instantly and without mur¬ 
muring. 

c. Through a rigid system of espionage the supe¬ 
riors always kept themselves informed of the 
movements of every inferior member and of 
each other. Every member of the organization 
was also an informant, spying on someone. 
Even the general was subject to this espionage. 

3. Its Work. 

a. The Jesuits made it their special task to stamp 
out heresy wherever they found it. Their atro¬ 
cities are well known. 

b. As missionaries they made it a point to carry 
the Catholic doctrine into new lands and to re¬ 
conquer territory that was lost to the church. 

c. They devoted themselves assiduously to the 
instruction of the young. Moreover, as teach¬ 
ers of princes, they managed to influence poli¬ 
tical affairs. 

d. All in all they did more than any other organi¬ 
zation to save the church of Rome from utter 
ruin and to restore her to something like her 
former power. 



50 


CHURCH HISTORY 


V MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW 

1. Events Leading up to the Massacre. 

a. The three religious wars between the Catholics 
and the Protestants, in which the former were 
led by the Guises, Montmorency and the court, 
and the latter by Louis Conde and Admiral 
Coligny. 

b. The marriage of Prince Henry of Navarre to 
Margaret, the daughter of Catherine de Medici 
and sister of King Charles. It was hoped that 
this union would restore the breach between 
the religious factions. The pope was opposed 
to the marriage; so was the young Duke of 
Guise, who wanted Margaret for himself. 

c. The conversation that Admiral Coligny, after 
he was shot, had with the king. He warned the 
king against the counsels of his mother and of 
the faction with which she allied herself. Cath¬ 
erine prevailed on Charles to tell her what 
Coligny had said. Then she with the Guises 
began to plot the destruction of the Hugenots. 

2. The Character of the Massacre. 

a. It was treasonable murder. Many nobles of 
■ the Hugenot party wanted to leave Paris after 
Coligny was shot, but the king assured them 
that he would punish the perpetrator and that 
they would be perfectly safe. 

b. It was a carefully planned murder. The Guises 
were to take the lead. The Catholics were pro¬ 
vided with weapons. The time determined on 
was at daybreak of Aug. 24, 1572. At the 
sounding of the bell on the palace of justice 
every Catholic was requested to bind a strap 
of white linen around his left arm and a white 
cross on his cap, and to begin the work imme¬ 
diately. 

c. It was a general massacre. The enemies began 

by murdering Admiral Coligny and some other 
nobles. Then men, women and children were 



CHURCH HISTORY 


51 


murdered in cold blood; none were spared. The 
murder spread from Paris to other cities, lasted 
for weeks, and, according to a low estimate, 
took a toll of 30,000 to 40,000 lives. Henry of 
Navarre and Henry Conde chose Catholicism 
above death. 

3. The Result. 

a. King Philip of Spain laughed when he heard of 
the massacre, and the pope ordered the Te 
Deum sung and had medals struck in remem¬ 
brance of the occasion. 

b. All other countries, both Protestant and Cath¬ 
olic, stood aghast at the crime and regarded 
the perpetrators with horror. The wholesale 
murder was meant to crush Protestantism, but 
failed miserably and gave new impetus to the 
work of reformation. 


VI THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY AND 
THE SYNOD OF DORT 

1. The Arminian Controversy. 

a. It is so named after Arminius, an able and well 
educated scholar. He had studied at Leyden 
and later on at Geneva under Beza, the suc¬ 
cessor of Calvin. 

b. Arminius began his public work as pastor of 
the church of Amsterdam. While laboring 
there he was requested to refute certain anti- 
Calvinistic teachings. In making the attempt 
he himself was converted to the errors of a 
form of Pelagianism. 

c. In 1603 he was elected professor of theology at 
Leyden, notwithstanding the objections urged 
against his appointment by the strict Calvinist 
Gomarus. From the moment of his entrance 
on his new duties he was opposed by his above 
named colleague. Soon a very serious dispute 
arose on the doctrine of predestination, which 






52 


CHURCH HISTORY 


even spread from the university to the 
churches. 

d. The followers of Arminius were called Remon¬ 
strants. In their Remonstrance of 1610 they 
embodied the following postulates: (1) God 
predestines to life all who believe in Christ. 
(2) Universal atonement. (3) Partial deprav¬ 
ity. (4) Resistable grace. (5) Believers may 
finally be lost. 

2. The Synod of Dort. 

a. When it seemed impossible to settle the theo¬ 
logical dispute that had arisen in any other 
way, a Synod was called to meet in the city of 
Dort on Nov. 13, 1618. This Synod was really 
an oecumenical council, to which delegates from 
the Reformed churches of other countries were 
invited. Some of those churches accepted the 
invitation. Delegates were present from Eng¬ 
land, Germany, Switzerland and the Southern 
Netherlands. 

b. The Synod agreed to make the Word of God 
the sole standard of judgment. It held 154 ses¬ 
sions, in which it condemned Arminianism and 
placed over against the five theses of the Re¬ 
monstrants the following five: (1) Uncondi¬ 
tional election. (2) Limited atonement. (3) To¬ 
tal depravity. (4) Irresistable grace. (5) Per¬ 
severance of the saints. 

c. One of the main achievements of the Synod 
was the Dutch translation of the Bible, known 
as the “Staten Bijbel.” This translation com¬ 
pares very favorably with any other. Even 
Arminian scholars praised it. 

d. After the Synod the Arminians were forbidden 
to exercise their religion. Two hundred of their 
preachers were deposed. In the time of Prince 
Henry they were first tolerated and then ac¬ 
corded full liberty. 





53 


\ 


CHURCH HISTORY 


VII THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF 

METHODISM 

1. The Origin of Methodism. 

a. Methodism arose in the Episcopal church of 
England. Conditions were rather deplorable in 
that church during the eighteenth century. 
The power of the Gospel was lost in formalism 
and ritualism. Arian and Socinian errors 
spread widely among the clergy. The preach¬ 
ing was ethical rather than religious. 

b. Methodism was a reaction against these condi¬ 
tions. It was set on foot by John Wesley, a 
young man of great piety and fervent zeal for 
the salvation of souls. In 1729 he with some 
friends, including his brother Charles, founded 
a society to promote pious living. George 
Whitefield joined their company in 1732. 

2. The Work of John Wesley and Whitefield. 

a. Both of them at first went to America for mis¬ 
sionary work among the natives in Georgia. 
After a brief stay, however, they returned to 
England. 

b. They did not intend to separate from the 
church of England, but were forced out of it. 
Their method of preaching was obnoxious to 
the church dignitaries. Moreover, Wesley fol¬ 
lowed a course that naturally involved separa¬ 
tion when he assumed the prerogative of or¬ 
daining others. 

c. They preached daily to great multitudes in the 
Angelican churches, and, when these were re¬ 
fused, in the open air, often to 20,000 or 30,000 
hearers. Their preaching was emotional, with 
strong emphasis on the demands of the law 
and the horrors of hell, and aimed at instant 
conversion. 

d. There was a difference between the two. Wes¬ 
ley was the great organizer of the movement, 
Whitefield the great preacher. The former 




54 


CHURCH HISTORY 


was Arminian in his theology, the latter, espe¬ 
cially after he had been under the influence of 
Jonathan Edwards in 1741, held Calvinistic 
views. 

3. The Character of Methodism. 

a. It has no idea of the covenant of grace, nor of 
the church as an organic conception, but knows 
only individual believers. Religiously all those 
who are not believers are on a level with the 
heathen and therefore fit subjects for conver¬ 
sion. 

b. It is very methodical in the promotion of per¬ 
sonal piety, suggesting such means as the reg¬ 
ular study of Scripture, stated seasons of 
prayer, periods of introspection, etc. Hence 
the name Methodism, first applied to it as a 
nick-name. 

c. The theology of Methodism is, as Wesley calls 
it, Evangelical Arminianism. It rejects pre¬ 
destination and the perseverance of the saints, 
but places great emphasis on the regenerating 
work of the Holy Spirit and on the necessity of 
strict Christian living, even to the extent of 
teaching perfectionism. 


VIII THE SECESSION OF 1834 

1. Conditions in the State Church at the Time of the 

Secession. 

a. In the year 1816 A.D. the character of the or¬ 
ganization of the State church in the Nether¬ 
lands suffered a radical change. A synodical 
organization with bureaucratic powers, that 
was entirely subversive of Reformed church 
government, was imposed on the church. 

b. The test of admitting ministers was changed. 
Up to that time the candidates had to accept 
the standards of the church, because these were 
in harmony with the Scriptures. After that, 





CHURCH HISTORY 


55 


however, they were merely asked to accept 
them in so far as they agreed with the Bible. 

c. In course of time there was an alarming in¬ 
crease of liberalism in the church, and there 
seemed to be no way of checking its advance. 
Many preachers openly denied some of the fun¬ 
damental doctrines of Christianity, such as, 
for instance, the doctrine of the Trinity and 
that of the Divinity of Jesus Christ, without 
being called to account for it. 

d. Meanwhile the Netherlands, too, felt the influ¬ 
ence of the great spiritual revival that affected 
various European countries. Groen van Prins- 
terer, Bilderdijk, Da Costa and Capadose were 
some of its representatives. 

2. The Reaction in the Form of Secession. 

a. The father of the Secession was Hendrik De 
Kock, the pastor of UlrunTs church since 1829. 
Not until he had served this church two years 
did he come to the conviction that the stand¬ 
ards of the Reformed church contained the true 
doctrine. 

b. Seeing that the people were very ignorant of 
the Reformed doctrine, he published “The De¬ 
cisions of the National Synod of Dort” and 
“The Compendium.” Moreover, he baptized 
children of parents that did not belong to his 
church, since these objected to the baptism of 
their children by unbelieving ministers. He 
also made a written attack on two of these 
ministers. 

c. As a result De Kock was deposed. His repeat¬ 
ed protests and defenses were of no avail; no 
reinstatement followed. Then he and his con¬ 
gregation finally separated from the church. 

3. The Result. 

a. Others soon followed the example of De Kock, 
viz., H. P. Scholte, A. Brummelkamp, G. T. Ge- 
zelle Meerburg and S. Van Velzen. 




56 


CHURCH HISTORY 


b. Under an old Napoleonic code forbidding the 
assemby of more than 19 persons the seceders 
were persecuted, fined, dragonnaded and im¬ 
prisoned. 

c. Notwithstanding the persecution, their cause 
grew. Finally their churches obtained recog¬ 
nition, and the Free Church was an established 
fact. 


IX VAN RAALTE AND THE REFORMED 
CHURCH IN AMERICA 

/ 

1. Van Raalte. 

a. Van Raalte was one of a small circle of friends 
at the University of Leyden who were thor¬ 
oughly evangelical and greatly deplored the de¬ 
cay of the church. 

b. When Van Raalte had finished his theological 
studies, he naturally tried to enter the min¬ 
istry, but failed because he refused to subject 
himself unconditionally to the regulations of 
the church and desired to preach the Gospel 
in its purity. The result was that he separated 
from the State church. 

c. Finally he received a call to the Seceder church 
of Genemuiden and Mastenbroek. Then the 
first Synod of the “Christian Seceder Church,” 
as it was called, examined and ordained him. 

2. Emigration and Colonization. 

a. In 1846 Van Raalte conceived the plan of emi¬ 
grating to America and estabishing a colony 
there. His determination to leave the Nether¬ 
lands was due partly to the persecutions, partly 
to the desire for perfect liberty of conscience 
and partly to the excessive poverty of many in 
the Netherlands. 

b. Van Raalte and his company arrived at New 
York in November, 1846. He soon made the 
acquaintance of some ministers of the old 





CHURCH HISTORY 


57 


Dutch church and enlisted the sympathies of 
that church in behalf of the colonists. 

c. He led his colony to the dense forests of Mich¬ 
igan on the shores of Black Lake, where the 
immigrants at first had to contend with many 
difficulties, suffered untold hardships and 
losses, but nevertheless maintained their foot¬ 
hold. 

d. This colony was followed by several others, 
that mostly settled in various parts of what is 
now called “the Colony.” Their settlements 
were named after the different provinces of the 
Netherlands. 

3. Church Affiliation. 

a. The different churches of “the Colony” com¬ 
bined in 1848 to form a Reformed Dutch 
church, with the usual standards of doctrine 
and polity. 

b. In July, 1849, Dr. I. N. Wyckoff visited them as 
representative of the Board of Domestic Mis¬ 
sions of the Reformed Church of America, and 
asked them whether they would like to join his 
church. 

c. During the following year Van Raalte was dele¬ 
gated to the Particular Synod of Albany, with 
the request to be received into the communion 
of the Reformed Church of America. They 
were so received and gradually became a cen¬ 
ter of great influence in the West. 


X THE ORIGIN OF THE CHRISTIAN 
REFORMED CHURCH 

1. Reasons for Dissatisfaction with the Reformed 
Church in America. 

a. In many circles there was more or less dissatis¬ 
faction from the very moment that the 
churches of the immigrants joined the Par¬ 
ticular Synod of Albany. It was thought that 
the union had been too hasty. 




58 


CHURCH HISTORY 


b. The greatest cause of estrangement lay in the 
doctrine and discipline of the Reformed Church 
in America. The colonists detected things of 
which they could not approve, as, for instance, 
that the Catechism was not preached, that the 
regular annual family visitation was neglected, 
that hymns were sung in public worship and 
that members of other denominations were ad¬ 
mitted to the Lord's Supper. 

c. Moreover, a pamphlet was issued about the 
time of the union setting forth the reasons for 
the secession from this church, led by Rev. 
Froeligh in 1822. This pamphlet strengthened 
many of the colonists in their conviction that 
the church which they had joined did not an¬ 
swer to their hopes and expectations. 

2. Return to Independent Existence. 

a. Several churches returned to the independence 
that characterized their church life before 
1850. This took place in 1857. They hesitated 
the less since, as they saw it, they had only 
conditionally joined the Reformed Church in 
America. 

b. The first churches to return were those of 
Graafschap, Noordeloos and Polkton. Two 
ministers, viz., Revs. K. Van den Bosch and 
G. H. Klijn, went with them. Others soon fol¬ 
lowed their example. 

c. The returned churches first met as classis in 
May, 1857, and united formally on the basis of 
God's Word, the standards of the Reformed 
Church of the Netherlands and the Constitu¬ 
tion of Dort. 

3. Later Additions to the Church. 

a. In 1880-82 there was considerable agitation 
against Masonary in the Reformed Church. As 
a result several of their churches joined the 
Christian Reformed Church, among which was 







CHURCH HISTORY 


59 


the old colonial church of Van Raalte. Others 
were: Coldbrook, Grand Rapids, Mich.; North 
Street, Zeeland, Mich.; Second Church, Grand 
Haven, Mich. 

b. In 1890 the True Reformed Dutch Church 
united with the Christian Reformed Church 
and formed classis Hackensack. Seven of these 
churches left again in 1908. 

c. Through the grace of Cod the Christian Re¬ 
formed Church is now in a very prosperous 
condition. Her Christian activities are varied 
and crowned with blessing. 



/ 






60 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


D. AMERICAN HISTORY 


I CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS AND THE 
DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 

1. Events Leading up to the Discovery of America. 

a. Columbus was born at Genoa, Italy, in 1435. 
After a careful education he took to the sea 
and for twenty years traversed 'the parts of 
the Atlantic adjacent to Europe, visiting Ice¬ 
land, Portugal and finally Spain. 

b. In his time the thoughts of many were fixed on 
a shorter and safer way to the East Indies. 
Columbus, believing the earth to be a sphere, 
conceived the idea that they could be reached 
by sailing westward. He was greatly mistaken, 
however, as to the size of the earth. 

c. But Columbus was poor and could not finance 
an expedition. He spent seven years in vain 
attempts to enlist some European monarch in 
the undertaking. Finally his proposals were 
accepted by Ferdinand and Isabelle. 

a. On August 3, 1492, Columbus left the harbor 
of Palos with one small ship, Santa Maria, and 
two caravels, the Pinta and the Mina, the whole 
squadron carrying only 120 men. 

b. During the trip the sailors were often filled 
with misgivings. They feared that the provi¬ 
sions would give out; that they would not be 
able to beat against the prevailing winds on 
the way back; that they would be entangled in 
the beds of weed, etc. When the journey lasted 
considerably longer than was at first antici¬ 
pated, the crews even became turbulent and 
mutinous. But Columbus never wavered. 

c. After seventy-two days of sailing land was 
sighted. On October 12, just at sunrise, Colum- 






AMERICAN HISTORY 


61 


bus stepped ashore and set up the banner of 
Castile in the presence of the natives. He 
named the island on which he landed (for he 
had not reached the mainland) San Salvador. 
Then he visited Cuba and Hayti, which he 
named Hispaniola. 

3. Columbus’ Return. 

a. Since his flagship had been wrecked, he set out 
on the return voyage with the caravels. In a 
great tempest the two vessels were separated. 
In March, 1493, Columbus again set foot on 
land at Palos. 

b. On his return he brought the astounding news 
of the discovery of a new continent and was 
greeted everywhere with rejoicings and ap¬ 
plause. The king and queen immediately sought 
to obtain from the pope a legal title to the land 
discovered. Columbus did not receive the honor 
that was his due. 


II THE PILGRIM FATHERS 

1. The Pilgrim Fathers in England and Holland. 

a. The Established Church of England was very 
corrupt in the beginning of the seventeenth 
century. The leaders were ignorant, licentious 
and greedy. Religion was lost in externaism. 
The common members of the church were 
characterized by great inpiety. 

b. This condition induced many to separate from 
the church and to contend for independency. 
They placed over against a separate priesthood 
the priesthood of all believers, and over against 
the formalism of the church a worship of God 
in spirit and truth. They sought above all to 
honor Jesus Christ as the King of His Church. 

c. When finally Parliament passed an act expatri¬ 
ating those who did not conform to the require¬ 
ments of the church, many of them left the 





62 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


home of their birth for the hospitable shores 
of Holland. 

d. Under the leadership of Robinson they settled 
at Leyden, where they engaged in such trades 
and employment as best suited them. Inde¬ 
pendency found a congenial soil here. Yet this 
loyal people longed to settle somewhere in the 
realm of their own king. 

2. The Founding of New Plymouth. 

a. Two of their members were sent to England to 
ask permission to settle in America. The king 
refused his support, and would only promise to 
let the Pilgrims alone in America. 

b. Undaunted, they provided the means of de¬ 
parture out of their own resources. The Speed¬ 
well, a small vessel, was bought and the May¬ 
flower, a larger one, hired. The former carried 
those of their number that wanted to make the 
venture to Southampton. 

c. Here the Speedwell proved unseaworthy. So 
the Pilgrims, to the number of 102, boarded the 
Mayflower. They left on the 6th of April, 1620. 
On the way many storms buffeted their vessel, 
and while they intended to found their colony 
on the Hudson, the tempest carried them to 
Cape Cod. 

d. Before landing they drew up a compact for the 
government of the colony, the first written con¬ 
stitution in the world. They pledged them¬ 
selves “solemnly and mutually, in the presence 
of God and of one another,” to form a body 
politic and to frame such laws as they might 
need, to which they promised all due submis¬ 
sion and obedience. 

e. On the 21st of December they landed on Ply¬ 
mouth Rock, but they settled a little farther 
north. Exposed to the cold, to hunger and to 
the barbarities of the Indians, their sufferings 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


63 


were indeed great; but they persisted and en¬ 
joyed the fruit of their sacrifice, liberty of con¬ 
science. 


Ill THE PURITANS AND A NEW 
ENGLAND THEOCRACY 

1. The Difference between the Pilgrims and the 

Puritans. 

a. The Pilgrims were separatists that left the 
Church of England because of its abuses and 
since they desired to serve God according to 
the dictates of their conscience. The Puritans, 
on the other hand, condemned separatism and 
wanted to purify the church while remaining 
in it. As soon as they landed in America they 
practically became separatists. 

b. The Pilgrims were men of great zeal and piety, 
but possessed little of this world’s goods and 
did not excel in knowledge. Many of the Puri¬ 
tans of 1830, however, were men of education 
and fortune. There were among them mem¬ 
bers of Parliament and clergymen of liberal 
education. 

2. The Puritan Exodus and Settlements in America. 

a. It was especially the intolerance of William 
Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, who initiated 
bitter persecutions of the Puritans, that led to 
their great migration. 

b. In 1628 the Massachusetts colony was founded 
and chartered, and in 1629 it was decreed that 
the seat of the government should be trans¬ 
ferred from England to America and that the 
charter should be intrusted to the colonists 
themselves. This was a great inducement for 
the Puritans. 

c. More than a thousand crossed to New England 
in 1830. Many others followed. They came to 
the American shores not singly nor in families 
merely, but often as congregations led by their 






64 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


pastors. Settlements of Puritans were soon 
found at Boston, Roxbury, Charlestown, Wa¬ 
tertown, Dorchester and other places. 

3. The Theocratic State. * 

a. The different colonies in Massachusetts and 
later also in Connecticut formed in reality a 
theocratic state. They had their own gover¬ 
nor, deputy and council, which were all chosen 
by the people. 

b. They restricted the right of suffrage to church 
members, so that nearly three-fourths of the 
people were excluded from the rights of free 
men. This naturally implied also that church 
members only were eligible to office. 

c. Taxes were levied for the support of the Gospel, 
and attendance on public worship was enforced 
by law. The laws of Moses were provisionally 
adopted as their civil code. 

d. Though the government was democratic, there 
was as yet no separation of church and state, 
nor religious ‘toleration. 

e. The Puritans exercised a powerful and bene- 
ficient influence on New England theology, and 
set a lasting stamp on many American insti¬ 
tutions. 


IV SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS LIFE IN 
COLONIAL DAYS 

1. Social Life. 

a. In all the colonies the social lines were far more 
strictly drawn than they are at present in 
America. There were first the African slaves, 
then the white servants, many of whom were 
criminals that escaped imprisonment or death 
by long servitude in America; next the traders, 
shopkeepers and small farmers, and finally the 
ruling class: the clergy, magistrates, college 
professors, etc. 






AMERICAN HISTORY 


65 


b. As might be expected, the early colonists 
largely engaged in farming, especially in New 
York, where the soil was far more fertile than 
in New England. In view of the small returns 
which agriculture yielded, many New England¬ 
ers turned their attention to the sea and be¬ 
came sailors, shipbuilders, merchants, etc. New 
York had not only rich farmers, but also 
wealthy traders. 

c. While in Virginia the county or the plantation 
was the geographical unit, in New England it 
was the town. This was usually a rural village 
with unpaved streets, often obstructed by 
stumps of native trees. The tavern was the 
center of social life here; it was both a drink¬ 
ing-house and a place of general gossip. The 
Dutch found great delight in sitting on their 
stoops in the summer evenings and chatting 
with their neighbors. Moreover, in games and 
amusements they were more liberal than their 
Puritan brethren. 

2. Religious Life. 

a. The New England ministers were generally 
men of profound learning and of great piety. 

They were held in high esteem by the people, 
who considered it a great privilege to listen to 
their lengthy discourses. 

b. From the time of sunset on Saturday the peo¬ 
ple would prepare themselves for the Sabbath 

by abstaining from all work, such as shaving, t 

sweeping, making beds, preparing food, etc. In¬ 
stead of working they would devote their time 
to family worship and to the instruction of the 
young. 

c. On Sunday morning the people repaired to 
church at the sound of a horn or drum, some¬ 
times armed for fear of the Indians. In church 
they sat in order of social rank, as they listened 
to three-hour sermons. Care was taken that 
no one fell asleep in church. . The churches 




66 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


\ 


were not heated in the winter, but the icy at¬ 
mosphere did not chill the hearts of these sin¬ 
cere worshipers. 

d. The Puritan's religion touched not only the 
spiritual side of his life, but his entire exist¬ 
ence. His dress, his speech, his behavior, his 
social and political life,—it was all subject to 
the restraining and purifying influence of his 
religion. 


V JONATHAN EDWARDS AND THE 
GREAT AWAKENING 

1. Jonathan Edwards. 

a. Jonathan Edwards was born at Windsor Farms, 
Conn., October 5, 1703. His father, Rev. Tim¬ 
othy Edwards, graduated with honors at Har¬ 
vard in 1691. His mother was Esther Stoddard, 
a daughter of Rev. Solomon Stoddard, a woman 
of admirable character. 

b. In 1720 he graduated with the highest honors 
of his class at Yale College. On February 15, 
1727, he was ordained as colleague of his grand¬ 
father, Rev. Stoddard, then pastor of the Con¬ 
gregational church at Northampton. After 
Stoddard's death he became sole pastor of that 
church. 

c. His pastorate was signally blessed, but as a 
result of his determined opposition to the 
“Half-Way Covenant," advocated by his grand¬ 
father, he was ejected from the pastorate of 
Northampton in 1750. The following year he 
became pastor of the church in Stockbridge 
and in 1757 he was elected president of Prince¬ 
ton College, but died shortly after his inaugu¬ 
ration. 

d. He is by many regarded as the greatest theo¬ 
logian and was one of the most noted meta¬ 
physicians of America. 





AMERICAN HISTORY 


67 


2. The Great Awakening. 

a. There were several revivals in Northampton 
in the days of Stoddard. Gradually, however, 
the people began to grow indifferent. Reli¬ 
gious life in the church was at a low ebb, and 
the conditions around it were naturally still 
worse. A change was wrought when Edwards 
in 1734 preached a number of sermons on jus¬ 
tification by faith. In this, as well as in his 
later preaching, he aimed at producing a deep 
conviction of sin and a dread of the torments 
of hell. 

b. The greatest revival, however, started in 1740. 
Northampton was once more the center and Ed¬ 
wards the great leader. He was soon joined in 
the work by Whitefield, who at that time made 
his second trip to America. The revival now 
spread throughout Massachusetts and Connec¬ 
ticut. The two leaders differed as to the char¬ 
acter of true conversion. Edwards depended 
less than Whitefield on momentary impulses 
and followed up his preaching by personal 
work. 


3. The Revival under Criticism. 

a. Many of the staid church people of New Eng¬ 
land looked askance at the whole movement as 
being merely an outburst of emotionalism. 

b. Fault was found also with some of the preach¬ 
ers that cooperated with Edwards, and who dis¬ 
played more zeal than discretion, when they 
denounced the churches and their ministers. 

c. Finally criticism was directed against the prac¬ 
tice of some of the revivalists, where they in¬ 
vaded the territory of the churches in an un¬ 
warranted manner. 




68 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


VI AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 

1. The Causes of the War. 

a. Remote Causes. The general cause was that 
England and her colonies developed each along, 
their own lines and had gradually grown apart, 
and that England wanted to continue to govern 
the colonies as if they were minors, when they 
had already reached their majority. It be¬ 
came increasingly evident that the colonies 
could better govern themselves than be gov¬ 
erned from England. Moreover, France incited 
the colonies to rebel and public opinion among 
the colonists tended to independence. 

b. Immediate Causes. The more immediate 
causes of the war are found in the passage by 
Parliament of a number of laws destructive 
of colonial liberty, as the Importation Act, the 
act authorizing colonial courts to issue Writs 
of Assistance, the Stamp Act, etc. The occa¬ 
sion of the war was the Boston tea party and 
the subsequent Boston Port Bill. 

2. The Character of the War. 

a. It was a very unequal struggle. Thirteen col¬ 
onies in no way united faced a mighty empire; 
a number of untrained militia was pitted 
against superior numbers of British regulars. 

b. It was a difficult and protracted struggle. The 
people supported the war half-heartedly and 
Congress was powerless to tax them. Hence the 
armies often went barefoot, half clothed and 
actually suffering for food. Think of Valley 
Forge. Hence there was often great dissatis¬ 
faction in the army. 

c. It was a determined struggle. Notwithstand¬ 
ing the difficulties to contend with and the ob¬ 
stacles to overcome, the war was fought with 
grim determination. No wonder, for the stake 
was high; the colonies were fighting for their 
independence. 




AMERICAN HISTORY 


69 


d. It was a successful struggle. This was due in 
part, no doubt, to the leadership of Washington 
and to the valor of the Americans, but also to 
a great extent to the fact that the British 
were wanting in truly efficient leaders. 

3. The Result of the War. 

a. The colonies actually attained the independence 
that was confidently declared as early as 1776. 

b. The territory of the colonies was extended from 
the Alleghanies to the Mississippi. 

c. The war had emphasized the necessity of closer 
union between the colonies and of a central au¬ 
thority, but even at the end of the war the 
colonies were loath to yield their power to the 
general government. 


VII HAMILTON AND JEFFERSON— 

A COMPARISON 

1. Their Place in American Politics. 

a. After the war the people were divided into the 
Federalist and Anti-federalist parties. The 
former favored the adoption of the Constitu¬ 
tion while the latter aimed at preventing its 
adoption. 

b. When the Constitution was adopted, the ques¬ 
tion arose whether it was to be construed 
strictly or loosely, i. e., whether Congress 
would be bound by the letter, leaving all other 
powers to the states or to the people, or 
whether the general government would have 
larger power than the document would indicate. 

c. The Federalists now championed the rights of 
the general government, i. e., of the Union, and 
Hamilton was its leader. Most of the Anti¬ 
federalists resolved themselves into a new po¬ 
litical party, favoring strict construction and 




70 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


the rights of the states. Jefferson became its 
leader. 

d. Both of these men occupied a prominent place 
in the cabinet of Washington: Jefferson was 
secretary of state and Hamilton secretary of 
the treasury. 

2. Their Character and Work. 

a. Jefferson was a son of the aristocracy of Vir¬ 
ginia, but was personally very democratic. He 
was of a retiring, studious and philosophical 
bent of mind. Hamiton, on the other hand, 
was of obscure parentage, but an aristocrat, a 
man of the world, brilliant, far-sighted and im¬ 
perious. 

b. Both men were patriotic and loved liberty, but 
each in his own way. Jefferson had great con¬ 
fidence in the people’s capacity for self-govern¬ 
ment, while Hamilton believed that a strong 
central government was needed to keep the 
people in check. As he saw it, a large measure 
of self-government would endanger liberty. 

c. Both fought unselfishly in the interests of their 
country. Hamilton won first, securing, as he 
did, within half a year the passage of four bills 
that all tended to the centralization of power. 
Later on Jefferson was victorious and over¬ 
threw the Federalist party. Yet he did not 
undo the chief work of his opponent, since he 

recognized its value. 

* 

3. The Fruits of Their Work. 

a. We owe it to Hamilton that we have to this day 
a liberal construction of the Constitution, and 
a central government with adequate powers. 
Thanks to his principles, the Union remained 
inviolate even in its darkest hours. 

b. Thomas Jefferson, however, infused into the 
Union a democracy that curbed aristocratic 
tendencies and safeguarded the rights of the 
people. 





AMERICAN HISTORY 71 


VIII THE MONROE DOCTRINE 

1. The Genesis of the Monroe Doctrine. 

a. It is now generally admitted that this famous 
doctrine, enunciated by President Monroe, had 
grown up gradually into a national tradition 
before his time and that he merely formu¬ 
lated it. 

b. The special occasion that led to the enunciation 
of the doctrine arose out of the rebellion of the 
Spanish colonies of Central and South Amer¬ 
ica, when Spain tried to reimpose upon them 
the old colonial system after they had once 
tasted of freedom. When Spain was not able 
to subdue them in six years, the United States 
acknowledged their independence. 

c. In 1823 the king of Spain invoked the aid of 
other European powers in putting down a rebel¬ 
lion at home, and very likely also with a view 
to subduing the rebellious colonies. This was 
considered to be an opportune time for the 
formal enunciation of the Monroe Doctrine. 

2. The Contents and Bearing of the Doctrine. 

a. The doctrine was a simple declaration in the 
president's message to the effect that the 
American continents are not subject to coloni¬ 
zation by any European power, and that any 
interference by such a power in the affairs 
of independent countries in America would be 
regarded as unfriendly to the United States. 

b. The first part of the message was directed 
chiefly against Russia, since it had taken pos¬ 
session of Alaska and was extending its settle¬ 
ments on the coast. The second part was meant 
to afford protection to the republics of South 
America. 

c. It is a mistake to think that the United States, 
in making this declaration, had the ultimate 



72 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


object of absorbing the republics of South 
America. 

3. The Effect of the Doctrine. 

a. The immediate effect was that Russia ceased 
her encroachments on the Pacific coast, and 
that the European powers abandoned all inten¬ 
tions of aiding Spain against her former col¬ 
onies. 

b. Afterward the doctrine was called into opera¬ 
tion on various occasions to protect American 
interests, especially against France in 1865 
and against England in 1895. 


IX THE CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR 

1. The Institution of Slavery. 

a. This was, no doubt, the great cause of the war. 
In the beginning all the colonies had been slave¬ 
holding, but in the Eastern and Middle states 
the system of slave labor was abolished, while 
the Northwestern territory excluded slavery 
from the start. In the North, therefore, the 
laborers were free men. 

b. In the South, however, the theory prevailed 
that capital should own labor. Hence the la¬ 
borers in that section of the country were 
slaves. The difference was due in part, no 
doubt, to the fact that the Southern states be¬ 
came cotton-producing, while the Northeastern 
states were given to manufacturing. 

c. There was, moreover, a growing public opinion 
in the North against the institution of slavery. 
The conviction gradually gained ground that 
slavery was wrong and should be abolished. 
This opinion was rather feeble at first, but it 
speedily developed and determined to a great 
extent the character of the conflict. 


v 






AMERICAN HISTORY 


73 


2. The Different Construction Put on the Constitution 

a. The differences between the North and the 
South referred to above often gave rise to con¬ 
flicting interests in Congress. Whenever the 
question of slavery was agitated a sectional di¬ 
vision would arise. 

b. In order that they might better safeguard their 
own interests the Southern states now became 
the special defenders of the doctrine of state 
rights. They held that the constitution was a. 
compact between sovereign states; that the 
Union might for certain reasons be dissolved; 
that a state might annul an act of Congress; 
that the highest allegiance of the citizen is due 
to his state, and that disunion is justifiable and 
honorable. 

c. The North, on the other hand, defended the 
indissoluble character of the Union, regarded 
the states as subordinate to the central gov¬ 
ernment, the acts of Congress as binding on 
the states and all attempts at disunion as trea¬ 
sonable. 

d. When the Southern states finally saw in the 
Union a growing danger to the institution of 
slavery, they seceded before Abraham Lin¬ 
coln, whom they feared, took the oath of office. 

3. The Gradual Estrangement between the People of 

the North and the South. 

a. This was due to various causes: the great rail¬ 
roads ran East and West; the tide of immigra¬ 
tion was westward; altogether there was little 
intercourse between the North and the South; 
hence the people did not understand each other. 

b. The flame of enmity was fanned by sectional 
books that increased mutual hatred. This was 
led up to the highest pitch by unscrupulous and 
scheming politicians. 



74 


AMERICAN HISTORY 


X EMANCIPATION OF THE SLAVES 

1. Preliminary Steps. 

a. The war had been going on for a year and a 
half as a war for the Union before the govern¬ 
ment took a decisive stand on the question of 
slavery. There were radicals from the start 
that did not cease to demand that it should 
strike at the hideous institution. But Lincoln 
hesitated, knowing that a too hasty action 
would alienate the border states and probably 
the whole Democratic party. 

b. Yet there had been gradual steps towards 
emancipation: first, the sporadic attempts of 
some of the generals to aid the cause, whose 
proclamations were, however, overruled by the 
president; secondly, on April 16,1862, Congress 
abolished slavery in the District of Columbia 
with compensation; thirdly, it passed a law in 
June of the same year prohibiting slavery in 
al the territories of the United States, includ¬ 
ing those to be acquired; fourthly, the presi¬ 
dent made an attempt to induce the border 
states to abolish slavery, but in vain, and 
finally, on July 17, 1862, Congress pronounced 
all slaves free who should come within the pro¬ 
tection of the government, if their masters 
were in or aided the rebellion. 

2. The Emancipation Declaration. 

a. At a cabinet meeting on July 22, 1862, Presi¬ 
dent Lincoln declared his purpose to issue an 
emancipation edict, and read the document he 
had prepared. Many of the cabinet members 
were surprised, but they all approved it, except 
Blair. It was decided, however, to wait until 
some signal Union victory was won. 

b. Then came the battle of Antietam, that drove 
Lee back into Virginia and ended his invasion 
of the North, and the retreat of Bragg from 



AMERICAN HISTORY 


75 


Kentucky. This was the opportune time, and 
the president issued his proclamation, declar¬ 
ing that the slaves in all states, or designated 
parts of states that were in rebellion against 
the government, should on the 1st of January, 
1863, be forever free. Thus the rebellious 
states had a hundred days' notice, but they 
failed to heed it. 

3. The Effect of the Declaration. 

a. It had not the immediate effect of emancipating 
the slaves; this could not be expected. But it 
set forth the policy of the government, and 
transformed the war into a war not only 
against disunion, but also against slavery. 

b. It enlisted effectively the sympathy of Europe, 
that cared less about the preservation of the 
Union, and also won many friends in the North. 

c. On the other hand it also made the administra¬ 
tion many enemies and caused an alarming po¬ 
litical reaction in the fall elections. Neverthe¬ 
less, the cause it championed was victorious. 




E. DUTCH HISTORY 


I THE BATAVI, THE ORIGINAL INHAB¬ 
ITANTS OF THE NETHERLANDS 

1. Their Origin and Habitation. 

a. The Batavi originally belonged to the Chatti, 
a powerful German tribe. On account of a dis¬ 
sension they were expatriated. 

b. Shortly before that time the island of the 
Rhine, formed by a branch of the Rhine, by the 
Waal and the Meuse, was deserted by its in¬ 
habitants, since a terrible inundation had swept 
away their miserable dwellings. 

c. It was on this island that the expatriated 
Chatti settled about a century before our era. 
They called the island “Bet-auw,” or “good 
meadow,” and hence they were known from 
that time on as Batavi. 

2. Their Character. 

a. Physically they were characterized by huge 
bodies and muscular limbs. Their complexion 
was fair, their eyes blue and fierce, and their 
hairlocks mostly of a fiery red color. They 
wore very simple clothing and had no relish for 
finery. 

b. They were preeminently a warlike tribe. It 
was the custom of their young men to cut nei- 
their hair nor bread and to wear an iron ring 
upon their necks until they had slain an enemy. 
Carnage and plunder gave them the greatest 
enjoyment. 

c. Sovereignty among them resided in the great 
assembly of the people. This assembly chose 
their chieftains and elected those that would 






DUTCH HISTORY 


77 


preside in war. The fortunate ones were raised 
on the shield and carried about. 

d. Their religion was originally monotheistic: 
they believed in a single, supreme All-Vater, 
whom they worshiped in their dense forests. 
In course of time Roman influence contam¬ 
inated and depraved the ancient religion. 

3. Their Relation to the Romans. 

a. Under Roman dominion they were free from 
taxation, but were drawn on heavily for war 
purposes. The imperial bodyguard was usually 
chosen from their numbers. 

b. The Romans regarded them as the best riders 
and swimmers of the army, and as model sol¬ 
diers; but their valor brought them little ma¬ 
terial reward. 

c. In the days of Otho and Vitellius the choice of 
the Roman emperor even depended on the Ba¬ 
tavian regiments. Knowledge of the prepon¬ 
derating influence of the Batavian warriors, 
coupled with a desire for revenge, led to the 
revolt of Claudius Civilis, a Batavian of noble 
birth. 


II EARLY MISSIONARY EFFORTS IN 
THE NETHERLANDS 

1. The Laborers in general. 

a. The earliest efforts for the conversion of the 
savage fishermen of Friesland and Holland, at 
the end of the seventh and the beginning of 
the eighth century, were made by two Anglo- 
Saxon monks, Wilfrid, bishop of York, and St. 
Willebrord. The latter left for Holland with 
twelve brethren, became the apostle of the 
Friesians and was consecrated by the pope the 
first bishop of Utrecht. 

b. A greater than these two followed them, viz., 
Winfried, afterwards called Boniface. He was 





78 


DUTCH HISTORY 


an Anglo-Saxon of noble birth, brought up in 
the convent of Adescancastre (Exeter?), after¬ 
wards settling in Nursling, and was ordained 
priest at the age of thirty. Sacrificing his pros¬ 
pects at home, he crossed the channel and be¬ 
gan his missionary labors among the Friesians. 

2. The Career of Boniface. 

a. His first attempt in Friesland failed. Ratbod, 
the Friesian king, checked his labors and even 
destroyed the churches and monasteries. 
Therefore Boniface returned to England. 

b. The following spring he went to Rome and was 
authorized to preach the Gospel in central Eu¬ 
rope. Boniface now began his work in Thur¬ 
ingia, where he felled the ancient oak conse¬ 
crated to Thor. His labors were very success¬ 
ful. 

c. After the death of Ratbod he again repaired 
to Holland and labored for three years under 
Willebrord of Utrecht. From there he returned 
to Hesse and Thuringia, where his labors 
were signally blessed. In view of his work 
there he was called “the apostle of the Ger¬ 
mans.” 

d. He also undertook to reform the Frankish 
church, establishing the relation between 
church and state on a settled basis. The pope 
recognized his good services by consecrating 
him bishop and afterwards archbishop of 
Mainz. 

e. Boniface regarded true Christianity as identi¬ 
cal with Romanism, and hated independence in 
matters of the church. This made him rather 
intolerant of independent missionaries. Yet 
he had an open eye for the evils that had even 
crept into the Roman church and pointed them 
out to the pope. His preaching was of the 
evangelical type. 




79 


N 


DUTCH HISTORY 


f. In 753 he again returned to the Friesians in or¬ 
der to continue his labors there. After two 
years of work he was martyred near Dokkum. 


Ill CHARLES THE BOLD 

1. His Character and Aim. 

a. Charles the Bold was the son of Philip the 
Good of Burgundy, and succeeded his father 
in 1467. He was entirely devoid of the finer 
and magnanimous qualities that characterized 
his father. He was above all ambitious, auda¬ 
cious and relentless. 

b. His one dominant ambition was to make Bur¬ 
gundy a kingdom. In order to realize this 
ideal he attempted to unite The Netherlands 
and Burgundy by conquering the land that lay 
between them. This would mean the founding 
of a mighty empire between France and Ger¬ 
many. 

2. His War with Liege and His Troubles with Louis 

XI of France. 

a. The great aim of Louis XI was to make France 
a compact monarchy. With this in view he 
deemed it necessary to destroy the power of 
his mighty vassals, of which Charles was the 
most important. Hence he was constantly 
warring with the latter, and always intrigu¬ 
ing against him. 

b. After Charles concluded peace with France, 
Louis, by means of intrigue, brought on a war 
between the duke and the Liegeois. This war, 
in which the king supported Liege in an under¬ 
handed way, lasted for several years, during 
which peace was once concluded, but broken 
again by the Liegeois. At last Charles wreaked 
terrible vengeance on the unfortunate country 
of Liege. 





80 


DUTCH HISTORY 


3. His War with the Swiss. 

a. In carrying out his great purpose Charles de¬ 
sired to join to his territory Lorraine and a part 
of Switzerland. Since he found it impossible 
to obtain what he wanted in a peaceful way, he 
entered on a war of conquest. 

b. Nancy opened its gates to him; Granson capitu¬ 
lated, but this did not restrain him from caus¬ 
ing all the defenders to be hanged or drowned. 
This was the signal for a general uprising of 
the Swiss against him. They routed his army 
at Granson and exterminated a second army at 
Morat. With a third, consisting largely of mer¬ 
cenaries, he proceeded against Nancy in the 
midst of the winter. Betrayed by his soldiers 
he fell ingloriously on the Swiss icefields. 

e. The great project of Charles the Bold failed, 
and in the end the king of France gained his 
point. Had Charles succeeded the history of 
Europe would have been different. 


IV THE CAUSES OF THE EIGHTY 
YEAR’S WAR 

1. Intense Dislike of Foreign Domination. 

a. This was not very pronounced during the reign 
of Charles V, who was born in Flanders and 
was on the whole well liked by his Holland sub¬ 
jects. 

b. The case was quite different when Philip II 
succeeded his father. He was above all a Span¬ 
iard, and the Spaniards were cordially hated 
in the Netherlands. Fuel was added to the fire 
when Philip, passing by such great men as Wil¬ 
liam of Orange and Count Egmont, placed Span¬ 
iards in responsible positions. 

c. Moreover, the people of Holland objected to 
having Spanish troops quartered on them. They 
earnestly requested Philip to recall them, but 





DUTCH HISTORY 


81 


he was reluctant. Hence they suspected that 
he wanted to keep them there in order to make 
his power absolute. 

2. The Attack on Ancient Privileges of the Provinces. 

a. The Provinces were in possession of several an¬ 
cient privileges, granted by some of the dukes 
and counts that ruled the Netherlands in for¬ 
mer centuries. These had been honored by 
succeeding rulers, so that the people had come 
to regard them as inviolable. 

b. The constitution of Holland stipulated among 
other things that “no foreigner is eligible as 
counselor, financier, magistrate or member of 
a court. Justice can be administered only by 
the ordinary tribunals and magistrates.” Sim¬ 
ilar rights had been accorded to other Prov¬ 
inces. And Philip, too, had promised to main¬ 
tain them. 

c. Contrary to the spirit of these ancient privi¬ 
leges, the king enlarged the number of bishops 
and archbishops in the Netherlands without 
consulting the Estates, and gave them powers 
that were dangerous to the general welfare. 
Hence there was a general outcry of both Cath¬ 
olics and Protestants. 

3. The Desire for Religious Freedom. 

a. The Protestants had, besides the reasons al¬ 
ready mentioned, some which the Catholics did 
not share with them. They guarded their re¬ 
ligious liberty with a jealous eye. This was 
more precious to them than all the ancient 
privileges. 

b. The appointment of Cardinal Granvelle as 
prime minister to the Regent, Margaret of 
Parma, and then introduction of the new eccle¬ 
siastical order, were both measures to repress 
Protestantism. 



82 


DUTCH HISTORY 


c. These measures were capped by the introduc¬ 
tion of the inquisition with all its horrors. The 
religious cause was the great cause of the war. 


V THE RIOTS OF THE IMAGE-BREAKERS 

1. The Occasion for These Riots. 

a. These riots can only be explained from the ex¬ 
cited state of mind among the people, and this 
in turn was due to several causes. 

b. In the first place there was a relentless persecu¬ 
tion, as demanded by the edicts of Charles V. 
And repeated attempts made by the nobles to 
persuade Philip to moderate the cruelties of 
the inquisition were unsuccessful, so that these 
nobles decided on more open opposition. 

c. In the second place the people often met in the 
open air to listen to some heretical preacher; 
prayers were offered and psalms sung in the 
mother tongue. A placard was issued against 
this practice. Since that time, however, nobles, 
citizens and peasants attended these meetings 
fully armed. 

d. In the third place it is obvious that under such 
circumstances only a little spark was needed 
to ignite the inflammable material. An inju¬ 
dicious remark by some preacher was quite 
sufficient. As a matter of fact, a pompous dis¬ 
play of the Catholic clergy at Antwerp was the 
spark. 

2. The Character of These Riots. 

a. A furious mob entered the beautiful cathedral 
of Antwerp and demolished all the images, pic¬ 
tures and pieces of art it contained. Every¬ 
thing that reminded of the ancient faith was 
given to destruction. 

b. This iconoclasm was not limited to Antwerp, 
but soon spread to other places, such as Tour- 





/ 


DUTCH HISTORY 83 


nay, Valenciennes, etc. Hardly a Province or 
town escaped. It seemed like a preconcerted 
attack, while it really was simply a general 
spontaneous outburst of hate against the sym¬ 
bols of the Catholic religion. 

c. Yet the work was done with a certain modera¬ 
tion. There was no personal violence, nor any 
theft of the many costly articles that were 
lying around. 

3 The Effect of These Riots. 

a. Under pressure of these outrages the Regent 
decreed that there should be liberty of worship 
in those places, where the new religion was al¬ 
ready established. 

b. The riots drew all those that loved peace and 
favored Catholicism into the camp of the gov¬ 
ernment. Even Egmont took the side of the 
king. 

c. They made Philip more determined than ever 
to crush heresy in the Netherlands with a 
strong arm. The Council of Blood was estab¬ 
lished and Alva sent. 


VI THE SIEGE AND RELIEF OF LEYDEN 
1 The Siege Laid. 

a. With a view to the subjugation of Holland, the 
Spaniards deemed it of the utmost importance 
to possess the beautiful city of Leyden. It 
was situated about four miles from the North 
sea, where the old Rhine lost itself in its sandy 
deathbed. 

b. The first siege was begun in November, 1573, 
by Fransesco di Valdez. On account of the in¬ 
vasion by Louis of Nassau, the Spaniards were 
summoned away to defend the frontier. 

c. During the respite the city failed to heed the 
advice of the Prince of Orange to lay up fresh 




84 


DUTCH HISTORY 


stores of provisions and to strengthen the gar¬ 
rison. Relying on the success of Louis of Nas¬ 
sau, they even failed to occupy or destroy the 
forts of the enemy by which the city was en¬ 
compassed. 

d. After the defeat of Louis of Nassau on the 
Mook-Heath, Valdez was again dispatched to 
renew the siege. Knowing that the city was 
short on provisions, he brought no artillery, 
nor made any provision for assault, but con¬ 
tented himself with closely investing the city. 

2. The Sufferings and Endurance of the Besieged. 

a. There were no regular troops in the city, but 
only a small troop of freebooters and five com¬ 
panies of the burgher guard. The main reliance 
of the besieged was on the waters that were let 
in on the land and on the Prince of Orange. But 
a northeast wind kept the waters back, and the 
Prince needed considerable time to devise 
means of deliverance. 

b. After the short space of seven weeks the suf¬ 
ferings of the besieged became appalling. The 
most odious food, such as dogs, cats and rats, 
was eaten with relish. The men were almost 
too weak to be on guard and pestilence stalked 
through the city. 

c. Occasionally discouraged citizens urged the 
magistrates to surrender, but the great major¬ 
ity of the besieged spurned the idea, and the 
burgomaster, Adrian Van der Werff, was in¬ 
flexible. The endurance of the people was sub¬ 
lime. 

3. The Relief of the City. 

a. Suddenly on the 1st and 2nd of October the 
wind veered to the northwest, and from there 
to the southwest, driving the waters of the 
Meuse in full tide on the land. 

b. The vessels of Admiral Boisot now proceeded 
towards the city, attacking the forts on the 




DUTCH HISTORY 


85 


dykes as they went and driving out the garri¬ 
sons. On the 3d of October Valdez evacuated 
all the forts. 

c. In memory of the heroism of the besieged the 
Prince offered them to found a university or to 
establish a fair. They preferred the university, 
but the states granted both. 


VII THE ASSASSINATION OF THE PRINCE 
v OF ORANGE 

1. The Prince under the Ban. 

a. In the year 1579 the Union of Utrecht was se¬ 
cured by Prince William. It included the seven 
Protestant Provinces of Holland, Zeeland, 
Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overijsel and 
Guelderland, and formed the basis of the Dutch 
Republic. 

b. As soon as Philip II was made acquainted with 
this measure he placed William of Orange 
under a ban, prepared by Cardinal Granvelle, 
which declared the Prince to be a traitor and 
miscreant, made him an outlaw and placed a 
price on his head of 25,000 gold crowns. More¬ 
over, it offered the pardon of any crime, how¬ 
ever heinous, and nobility, whatever the rank 
of the person that killed the Prince might be. 

2. The Assassin and His Dastardly Crime. 

a. The assassin was Balthasar Gerard, a young 
man of twenty-seven years. For seven long 
years he had already cherished the ideal of 
killing the Prince. And as soon as he heard of 
the ban that was published he firmly resolved 
to accomplish the deed. 

b. He left Dole and came to Luxemburg, when he 
learned that John Jaureguy had already shot 
the Prince. On hearing a little later that the 
attempt had not been successful his determina¬ 
tion grew fiercer than ever. 





86 




DUTCH HISTORY 


c. Posing as Francis Guion, a devotee of the Re¬ 
formed faith and the son of a martyred Cal¬ 
vinist, he soon found entrance into Protestant 
circles. When the Duke of Anjou died, he was 
in France and obtained permission to carry the 
news to the Prince, who was then at Delft. 

d. When he delivered the message, he was unex¬ 
pectedly summoned before the Prince. He 
found his intended victim lying on the couch, 
but could not execute his plan at that time 
since, for want of money, he had not been able 
to buy a weapon. The next day was Sunday. 
Under false pretences he obtained money from 
the Prince to buy a pair of new shoes and 
stockings. With this he bought a pair of pis¬ 
tols and on the following Tuesday he fired the 
fatal shot. The Prince died praying for his 
people. 

3. The Aftermath. 

a. The murderer was condemned and subjected to 
a most barbarous punishment, and the prom¬ 
ised reward of Philip went to his parents. 

b. A tragical gloom was produced by the crime; 
there was universal sorrow, for a brief season 
even absolute despair. Yet on the very day of 
the murder the states of Holland pledged them¬ 
selves to maintain the good cause. 

c. The Union of all the Provinces of the Nether¬ 
lands (North and South) into one republic, 
which was the ideal of the Prince and which 
in all probability he would have realized, was 
now rendered hopeless. 


VIII PRINCE MAURICE AND JOHN OF 

BARNEVELDT 

1. Their Relative Position. 

a. Prince Maurice was the second son of William 
of Orange. He was perhaps the greatest gen- 





DUTCH HISTORY 


87 


eral of his age and worsted the Spaniards in 
many a battle. In course of time all the prov¬ 
inces, with the exception of Friesland, elected 
him as their stadtholder. Moreover, he was 
head of the state council, established by the 
States General. 

b. John of Barneveldt was the leading man in the 
States of Holland. In his youth he had fought 
in the armies and shown great bravery. He 
soon proved to be one of the greatest statesmen 
of the age and became advocate of Holland and 
Keeper of the Seals. In that capacity he had 
great power and exercised a far-reaching in¬ 
fluence in matters of general concern. 

c. Up to 1614 the relation between these two men 
was on the whole cordial, though Maurice re¬ 
sented the interference of Barneveldt in mili¬ 
tary affairs. The great fault of Barneveldt was, 
no doubt, that he was rather self-willed; yet he 
always insisted on the advancement of the 
Prince. 

2. Their Conflict. 

a. In the struggles between the Calvinists and the 
Arminians Maurice took the part of the former 
and Barneveldt that of the latter. Barneveldt 
believed that the State should be supreme in 
matters of religion, and it favored the Armin¬ 
ians. Maurice, on the other hand, stood for 
freedom of religion. 

b. When it was proposed that a National Synod 
should meet to settle the religious disputes, 
Barneveldt and the State Legislature of Hol¬ 
land repudiated the idea. Five Provinces wanted 
the Synod, but two of the most influential, viz., 
Holland and Utrecht, flatly refused, and even 
hired local troops, called “waardgelders,” to en¬ 
force their ideas. 

c. Thus the question arose whether separate 
states would be allowed to dictate in matters 





88 


DUTCH HISTORY 


of general welfare or whether the Union, repre¬ 
sented by the States General, would decide such 
questions. Maurice and the States General 
maintained that the levy of the “waardgelders” 
was unlawful, and the Prince promptly pro¬ 
ceeded to Utrecht, where most of them were 
levied, and compelled them to lay down their 
arms. By this bold stroke the power of re¬ 
sistance was broken. 

d. Finally Maurice had Barneveldt arrested and 
imprisoned. The States General appointed a 
special court of twenty-four judges, twelve of 
which were from the Province of Holland. The 
aged counselor was condemned to death for 
endangering the Union and throwing the reli¬ 
gious life of the people into confusion. Too 
proud to ask for clemency, which the Prince 
hoped he would do, he was executed on the 13th 
of May, 1619. 


IX WILLIAM III AND JOHN DE WIT 

1. State of Affairs When They Entered on the Scene. 

a. William II, son of Frederik Henry, a far 
stronger character than his father, had ener¬ 
getically defended the rights of the Union as 
over against the States of Holland, and sought 
to increase his power as stadtholder. But he 
died in the youthful age of twenty-four years, 
three months before the birth of his son, Wil¬ 
liam III. 

b. Since there was a latent fear that the stadt- 
holdership would tend to develop into a mon¬ 
archy, the Confederation met, at the instance 
of the States of Holland, and abolished the 
stadtholdership. The practical result was that 
the States of Holland now became the dominant 
power, lording it over the other Provinces. 





DUTCH HISTORY 


89 


c. John De Witt was chosen to be head of the Re¬ 
public as Grand Pensionary. He was at the 
same time minister of the States of Holland 

A 

and represented them in the States General. 
Being an exceptionally able man, he naturally 
wielded great influence. 

2. De Witt’s Opposition to William III.* 

a. When Cromwell concluded peace with the Neth¬ 
erlands, he demanded that the Prince should 
not be made stadtholder, for fear that this ap¬ 
pointment might strengthen the royal party in 
England. In deference to this demand De Witt 
induced the States of Holland to pass the Act 
of Seclusion. The more so, because this was 
also in the interest of the merchant aristoc¬ 
racy, which he represented above all. 

b. After that he consistently pursued the ideal of 
the sovereignty of the States, without a stadt¬ 
holder in the Provinces. He advised the States 
General never to appoint anyone as stadtholder 
who was at the same time captain-general of 
the army, thus making the stadtholdership 
powerless. Moreover, he repeatedly insisted on 
it that the Prince should not be given any mili¬ 
tary power until he was of age. 

c. When the Prince reached the age of eighteen, 
he received a seat in the Council of State, but 
only on condition, as stipulated by De Witt, 
that the captain-generalship should be kept 
separate from the stadtholdership. 

3. The Ascendancy of the Prince. 

a. There had always been a party that longed for 
the elevation of the Prince, consisting espe¬ 
cially of the nobility, the army, the Calvinistic 
clergy and the people below the governing class. 

b. When Louis XIV invaded the land in 1672, the 
condition of the land became so perilous and the 
demand for the elevation of the Prince so loud 
and insistent that De Witt could no longer re- 




90 


DUTCH HISTORY 


sist it. The Prince was made stadtholder and 
captain-general of the Union, 
c. In the same year the Grand Pensionary and his 
brother, who was imprisoned, were murdered 
by an enraged mob. 


X THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 

KINGDOM 

1. The Conditions that Preceded It. 

a. After the National Convention of France de¬ 
clared war on Great Britain and the stadtholder 
of Holland in 1793, French armies overran Bel¬ 
gium, and were welcomed by the so-called “pa¬ 
triots” of the United Provinces. William of 
Orange and his family were obliged to flee to 
England. 

b. In 1806 a deputation of Holland came to Na¬ 
poleon to ask as a favor of him that he appoint 
his brother Louis as king of the Batavian Re¬ 
public. Prince Louis was appointed against his 
own inclination. 

c. About the end of 1809 Louis, with other vassals 
of Napoleon, was summoned before the Em¬ 
peror. Because he refused to be a mere tool 
of Napoleon, he was obliged to resign. Hol¬ 
land was then added to the French Empire and 
formed into seven departments. 

2. The Events that Led to the Recall of William V. 

a. The yoke of Napoleon gradually became very 
grievous to the people of the Netherlands. 
There were enormous military exactions, mili¬ 
tary conscriptions that demanded the best 
young men and a total stoppage of trade and 
industries by the continued blockade of their 
coasts. 

b. In course of time the flame of independence 
spread from Germany to the United Provinces. 






DUTCH HISTORY 


91 


In view of the fact that there was but a small 
number of French troops in the land, this at 
once encouraged a revolt that was helped along 
considerably by the German and Russian troops 
that entered the country. 

c. The French troops, finding that they were 
harassed on all sides, finally left Holland, and 
the fleet at Texel hoisted the Orange flag. With 
great enthusiasm the representative of the be¬ 
loved house of Orange was soon after received 
at Amsterdam. 

3. The Beginnings of the Kingdom. 

a. William V now became king, as William I, of 
the kingdom of the Netherlands as created by 
the Congress of Vienne, consisting of Holland 
and Belgium. 

b. The union of these two elements proved rather 
unhappy, however, since they did not fuse well. 
Belgium took a decided dislike to the union for 
several reasons. It surpassed Holland in popu¬ 
lation and yet the latter was represented by an 
equal number in the States General. It was 
taxed more heavily than Holland, while the 
money levied mostly went into Dutch pockets. 
The Court resided in Holland. Moreover, there 
was a decided difference in character and reli¬ 
gion, Holland being Protestant and Belgium 
Catholic. 

c. In the latter part of 1380 riots broke out in 
Brussels and gradually spread to other towns. 
Concessions were demanded of the king and 
granted. Thus encouraged, the Belgians sought 
and finally obtained independence. 





BIOGRAPHY 

... » ..- - - 




/ 











BIOGRAPHY 


93 


BIOGRAPHY 


I AURELIUS AUGUSTINE 

1. Youth and Conversion. 

a. Augustine was born at Tagaste in proconsular 
Numidia Nov. 13, 354, and died at Hippo on 
Aug. 28, 430. His father, Patricius, was an 
influential member of the city council, a sen¬ 
sual, hot-tempered person, who never forsook 
his pagan religion. His mother, Monica (or 
Monnica), on the other hand, was a devout 
Christian woman, to whom Augustine owed a 
great deal. 

b. The lad studied grammar and rhetoric in the 
schools of Tagasta and Carthage, but while he 
became very proficient in Latin, he neglected 
Greek. Being a passionate person, he soon 
yielded to sensual temptations and led a very 
sinful life. He became a teacher of rhetoric, 
first at Carthage, then at Rome and finally at 
Milan. 

c. When he was nineteen years of age, higher 
thoughts began to stir his soul and he became 
a seeker after truth. For a while Manichean 
doctrines fascinated him, but they offered him 
no support in his struggles against sensuality. 
Then he was attracted by the idealistic teach¬ 
ings of Neo-platonism, but these merely inten¬ 
sified his sense of sin. Finally the preaching 
of Ambrose and a renewed study of the Scrip¬ 
tures led to his conversion. 

2. Augustine as Bishop of Hippo. 

a. After his conversion Augustine returned to 
Tagasta for meditation and study. From there 





94 


BIOGRAPHY 


he was called to Hippo, where he was ordained 
priest, became the colleague of Bishop Valerius 
and finally his successor. 

b. While he was bishop, he entered into several 
controversies, of which the most important are 
the Donatist and the Pelagian controversies. 
Against the former he defended the position 
that the Church is the visible society of be¬ 
lievers, and may be called holy, though it con¬ 
tains unholy elements; and that the efficacy of 
the sacraments does not depend on the char¬ 
acter of the person that administers them. And 
over against the Pelagians he maintained the 
doctrine of predestination, the efficacy and ir- 
resistable character of God’s grace and the per¬ 
severance of the elect. 

c. Augustine was a voluminous writer. His writ¬ 
ings cover a wide range of topics. And both 
through his oral and written teachings he ex¬ 
ercised a profound, widespread and lasting in¬ 
fluence. The Reformers reverted to the teach¬ 
ings of Augustine. This is true particularly of 
Calvin, who constantly quotes him, and praises 
him as the best of the fathers. Up to the 
present day the Reformed churches practically 
follow the way pointed out by Augustine. 


II GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA 

1. Savonarola as Preacher and Prophet. 

a. Girolamo Savonarola was born at Ferrara Sept. 
21, 1452. He was destined by his parents for 
the study of medicine, but the wickedness that 
surrounded him induced him to enter the Do¬ 
minican convent at Bologna. 

b. In course of time he became prior of St. Mark’s 
at Florence, where for a period of nine years 
he was the dominating figure. ,He gradually 
developed into a great preacher, castigating un¬ 
mercifully the sins of the people, of their rulers 





BIOGRAPHY 


95 


and even of some of the clergy. His audiences 
often ranged from 10,000 to 12,000. 

c. He believed himself to be an inspired prophet 
that received revelations directly from God. It 
may be doubted that his so-called prophecies 
were real, but some of them did receive re¬ 
markable confirmation. 

2. The Work of Savonarola as Reformer. 

a. Savonarola did not aim at overturning the ec¬ 
clesiastical order of his day, though in religious 
matters he did not regard the pope, but a coun¬ 
cil as the final authority. His great object was 
the moral reformation of the city of Florence 
and of Italy. 

b. His work drew him into repeated conflicts with 
Lorenzo the Magnificent, the greatest of the 
Medici, because he wanted to liberate Florence 
from the licentious rule of the wicked princes 
of that house. After the death of Lorenzo he 
did not rest until the Medici were expelled and 
Florence was free. 

c. Then he sought to establish a theocracy in that 
city; God was to be acknowledged and honored 
as the only king. In his work of reformation 
he experienced a great deal of opposition, most 
of all from the pope, who tried flattery and 
bribes and threats in his attempts to check the 
work,—but all in vain. 

3. The Tide Turning Against Savonarola. 

a. In the year 1497 Savonarola’s troubles greatly 
increased. He was insulted on placards and 
assassins sought his life. The pope, who felt 
very keenly the sting of his preaching, excom¬ 
municated him. 

b. The rulers of the city, however, permitted him 
to continue his work. Then the pope threatened 
the city with the interdict. As a result the 
magistrates thought it wise to enjoin silence 





96 


BIOGRAPHY 


on Savonarola, but they refused to deliver him 
up to his enemies. 

c. At last a Fransiscan monk challenged the Re¬ 
former to the test of an ordeal of fire. Savona¬ 
rola hesitated, but one of his friends accepted 
the challenge. At the appointed time the friend 
was ready, but objections were raised and the 
trial was not made. Yet this was sufficient to 
discredit Savonarola with the mob. He and 
two of his friends were arrested, and on May 
23, 1498, they were hanged and their bodies 
burned. 


Ill MARTIN LUTHER 
1. Luther’s Youth and His Breach with Rome. 

a. The great Reformer was born of poor parents 
at Eisleben on the 10th of November, 1483. 
He received his early schooling at Magdeburg 
and Eisenach. At the age of eighteen he en¬ 
tered the university of Erfurt to study law. 
After his graduation he entered the convent of 
that city, where, under the guidance of Stau- 
pitz, and through the study of Paul and Augus¬ 
tine, his eyes were opened to the truth. 

b. The sale of indulgences was instrumental in re¬ 
vealing to Luther the deep corruption of the 
church. He opposed it first as a practice that 
was dishonorable to the church, but soon saw 
that it was but the practical application of the 
teachings of the church. 

c. As a result Luther attacked the doctrines of 
the church that fostered this practice. On 
October 31, 1517, he posted his ninety-five 
theses on the castle church at Wittenberg. 

d. The pope made several vain attempts to bring 
Luther to submission. He approached him first 
through Cajetan and then through Von Miltitz. 
When he noticed that these attempts failed, he 
excommunicated the heretic. The Reformer 
burnt the bull and thus broke with Rome. 





BIOGRAPHY 


97 


2. Important Elements in His Reformatory Work. 

a. After the Diet of Worms Luther was carried 
off to the Wartburg, where he translated the 
Bible in the vernacular, thus enabling the peo¬ 
ple to read it in their own tongue. 

b. When his doctrine of Christian liberty was mis¬ 
interpreted and led to the Peasant’s War in 
Swabia and Thuringia, that aimed at the over¬ 
throw of civil authority, he dissuaded the peas¬ 
ants, and, when they would not listen, urged 
the nobles to slay them. 

c. Luther engaged in several important contro¬ 
versies. Over against Henry VIII he justified 
his opposition to the pope and to the church. 
In his controversy with Erasmus he maintained 
the Augustinian doctrine of free grace. And 
in opposition to Zwingli and the other Swiss 
Reformers he defended the actual presence of 
the body of Christ in the Lord’s Supper. 

d. Luther’s great doctrine was that of justifica¬ 
tion by faith. Moreover, he maintained the 
right of every Christian to interpret the Bible 
for himself. He rejected the mass, but placed 
great emphasis on private confession. 

3. Luther’s Marriage and Private Life. 

a. On June 15, 1525, Luther married Catherine 
Von Bora, who had been a nun of the Cister¬ 
cian order. In doing this he yielded to the nat¬ 
ural desire for the happiness of domestic life 
and thus gave a practical testimony against 
the law of celebacy. 

b. Luther was greatly attached to his home, 
where he found much delight in assisting his 
wife, in frolicking with his children and in 
music and song. 

c. In 1546 he left his home at Wittenberg on a 
journey to Eisleben. There he was stricken 
and died on February 18. 





98 


BIOGRAPHY 


d. Luther was a man of broad sympathies, of 
great energy, very affectionate, full of humor, 
a true spiritual genius. 


IV JOHN CALVIN 

1. Calvin’s Youth and Conversion. 

a. Calvin was born in the year 1509 at Noyon in 
Picardy. He was educated with the children 
of the noble family of Mommor. At first des¬ 
tined for the priesthood, his father afterwards 
determined that he should qualify for the pro¬ 
fession of a jurist. He advanced rapidly and 
became very proficient in legal studies. 

b. At the instance of his Greek professor, Mel¬ 
chior Wolmar, he studied the New Testament 
in the original. This, together with conversa¬ 
tions and disputes with his fellow-students, 
opened his eyes to the abuses of the church. 
Shortly after that, possibly in 1532, he was sud¬ 
denly converted. 

c. He now sought seclusion in order to examine 
the foundations of Protestantism, but by force 
of necessity became a leader of the Protestants 
in Paris. Driven from Paris repeatedly, he re¬ 
tired to Basel, where he wrote his most cele¬ 
brated work, the “Institutes of the Christian 
Religion.” 

2. Calvin at Geneva. 

a. In August, 1536, Calvin came to Geneva. There 
he met Farel, who had already begun the work 
of reformation in that city, and adjured Calvin 
to stay and help him in the performance of his 
great task. Calvin hesitated, but finally ac¬ 
cepted. 

b. He immediately began his work by preparing a 
catechism for the young and by strengthening 
the bonds of discipline. Various ornaments 






BIOGRAPHY 


99 


and sports were forbidden. The Libertines, 
however, resisted his efforts, and the magis¬ 
trates banished him from the city. 

c. Then the great Reformer went to Strassburg, 
where he took charge of a church of French 
refugees. Meanwhile Geneva was in a state 
of turmoil; scenes of violence were frequent 
and licentiousness reigned supreme. Moreover, 
the Catholics tried to regain their influence. 
In view of these things the magistrates recalled 
Calvin. 

d. Calvin returned and under his influence a new 
ecclesiastical and civil order was introduced 
and rigidly enforced. The government now 
assisted Calvin and even gave him a controlling 
influence in framing civil laws. The Libertines 
harassed him in every possible way, but finally 
suffered a complete defeat. 

e. Realizing the necessity of education, Calvin 
now founded a theological school and placed 
Beza at the head of it. Geneva became not 
only a place of refuge for the persecuted, but 
also a famous center of learning. 

3. Calvin’s Character and Main Principles. 

a. Calvin perhaps lacked somewhat in geniality, 
but was by no means the bigoted, unfeeling 
tyrant many suppose him to have been. He 
was a man of faith and true piety, of strong 
convictions and indomitable courage, humble 
before God, but among men an industrious in¬ 
tellectual giant. 

• 

b. He recognized the absolute authority of the 
Bible, confessed the absolute sovereignty of 
God and saw in the glory of God the chief end 
of man. 







100 


BIOGRAPHY 


y ULRICH ZWINGLI 

1. Zwingli’s Early Life. 

a. Zwingli was born in the year 1484 in the moun¬ 
tain village of Wildhaus. He was a bright lad, 
thirsting for knowledge, and studied first at 
Bern and Vienna and then at Basel. The char¬ 
acter of his training was altogether humanis¬ 
tic. 

b. On the publication of the Greek Testament of 
Erasmus, he studied it earnestly and even 
copied the Epistles of Paul. 

c. For a period of two years he was pastor of 
Glarus, but in 1516 he exchanged this place for 
Einsiedeln, the seat of the famous shrine of 
Mary. While there he preached against the 
superstitious notion of meritorious perform¬ 
ances and against indulgences. 

2. Zwingli’s Work of Reformation at Zurich. 

a. An important change took place when Zwingli 
was transferred to the cathedral church of 
Zurich. Here he first became acquainted with 
Luther’s writings, and joined issue with the 
Romish court party. 

b. He had an ever increasing reverence for the 
power and authority of the Bible, was an elo¬ 
quent and fearless preacher and soon obtained 
permission from the town council to preach the 
truths of Scripture only. 

c. In 1523 he obtained from the council two de¬ 
crees, one forbidding the clergy to teach any¬ 
thing that was not found in the Bible and an¬ 
other forbidding the use of images and the 
sacrifice of the mass. Zurich finally threw off 
its allegiance to the bishop of Constance. The 
town council stood at the head of the inde¬ 
pendent church, and religious life in Zurich 
underwent a complete change. 





BIOGRAPHY 


101 



3. The Difference between the Swiss and the German 

Reformation. 

a. Luther was transformed into a Reformer by a 
deep conviction of sin and by spiritual con¬ 
flicts; Zwingli through his classical studies 
and the study of the New Testament. 

b. Luther placed all emphasis on the material 
principle of the Reformation, viz., justification 
by faith; Zwingli on the formal principle, the 
absolute authority of the Word of God. 

c. Luther was a religious reformer only; Zwingli 
a political reformer as well. 

d. Luther rejected only what was contrary to the 
Bible; Zwingli repudiated everything that was 
not directly sanctioned by the Bible. 

4. The Struggle in which Zwingli Fell. 

a. Four hostile cantons of Switzerland entered 
into a league with Ferdinand of Austria to over¬ 
throw Protestantism. Zwingli urged the cities 
to resist and to throw off the yoke of the four 
cantons. 

b. The Catholic forces marched against Zurich, 
and Zwingli accompanied the Protestant forces 
as chaplain. At Cappel the Catholics won the 
day, and Zwingli was killed. 


VI JOHN ELIOT 
1. Eliot’s Youth and Training. 

a. John Eliot was born at Nasing, Essex county, 
England, of godly parents, and received his 
education at Cambridge, where he became thor¬ 
oughly conversant with the original languages 
of the Bible. 

b. After leaving the university he became an un¬ 
der-teacher in the grammar school of Rev. 
Thomas Hooker. To his connection with the 
pious Hooker family he traces his conversion. 




102 


BIOGRAPHY 


c. When Hooker left for America, Eliot resolved 
to devote himself to the ministry. On account 
of the persecution of Laud he found himself 
obliged to follow Hooker to New England. 
Shortly after a congregation was founded at 
Roxbury and Eliot became its pastor, continu¬ 
ing in that relation till his death in 1690. 

2. His First Missionary Efforts. 

a. Soon after settling at Roxbury Eliot became 
greatly interested in the Indians, and when the 
legislature passed an act for the propagation 
of the Gospel among them, he resolved to pre¬ 
pare for the work. 

b. With the aid of a young Indian he soon be¬ 
came sufficiently acquainted with the language 
to translate the Ten Commandments, the 
Lord’s Prayer and some texts and prayers and 
to preach in the native tongue. 

c. The work began auspiciously at Brighton, in 
the wigwam of Waban, the chief. A second 
place of labor was Neponset. And at the re¬ 
quest of the Indians he also took up the work 
at Pawtucket and on the present site of Brook¬ 
field. 

d. His work was attended with great difficulties. 
The powwows, conjurors or juggling priests, 
did all they could to incite the Indians against 
him. He also suffered much from exposure and 
fatigue. Moreover, his own people were apa¬ 
thetic and failed to support him, some looking 
upon his work as a money-making scheme. 

3. The Establishment of His Work. 

a. In 1649 Christians in England, who were in¬ 
terested in his work, organized “The Society 
for the Propagation of the Gospel in New Eng¬ 
land.” This society was incorporated by Par¬ 
liament. 




BIOGRAPHY 


103 


b. The society increased the salary of Eliot and 
besides sent him collections that were taken 
throughout England and Wales. This money 
was partly used in realizing the ideal of Eliot 
to settle all the Indian converts in one place. 

c. Eliot now devoted himself mainly to the train¬ 
ing of native teachers and preachers. He lived 
to see twenty-four of the Indians preach the 
Gospel. 

d. Another very important part of his work was 
the translation of the Bible. Eliot's Indian 
Bible was the first one printed in America and 
was naturally a great boon to the Indians. 


VII COUNT ZINZENDORF 

1. Zinzendorf’s Early Life and Education. 

a. He was born of noble ancestors at Dresden 
May 26, 1700. Since his father died when he 
was an infant and his mother married again, 
he became the charge of his maternal grand¬ 
mother, a godly pietist, who exercised great in¬ 
fluence on him. 

b. In his tenth year he entered the Halle Insti¬ 
tute, where he received abiding religious im¬ 
pressions. He took a special interest in Spener’s 
ideal of an “ecclesiola” (little church) in the 
church. After finishing his studies at Halle 
he was sent to Wittenberg for the study of 
law. His uncle and guardian wanted to check 
his pietistic notions. 

c. When he had completed his work at Witten¬ 
berg, he traveled for two or three years. Then 
his relatives wanted him to take up work at 
the court in Dresden, but the count was not 
interested in that kind of work. The founding 
of a Christian community was his ideal. 





104 


BIOGRAPHY 


2. Founding of the Brotherhood. 

a. The Schalkald and the Thirty Year's War re¬ 
sulted in great suffering and persecution for 
the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. Some 
of them, led by Christian David, sought refuge 
on Zinzendorf’s estate. The count being ab¬ 
sent, his grandmother gave them Hutberg at 
Berthelsdorf as a settlement. 

b. At that place a Christian society was formed. 
In course of time the number was augmented 
by secretaries of various kinds. Since this so¬ 
ciety did not wish to conform to the Lutheran 
church, Zinzendorf found himself obliged to 
draw up a constitution with the old Moravian 
forms. The colony was called the United 
Brotherhood. 

3. The Missionary Efforts of the Brotherhood. 

a. At first it seemed as if the colony would be 
compelled to move once more, but finally it was 
tolerated, when it accepted the Lutheran stand¬ 
ards. Zinzendorf was finally consecrated as 
bishop. 

b. Evidently trouble was averted only for a short 
time, for a little later the count, probably at 
the command of the elector, left Hernhut and 
settled with his company at Ronneburg, where 
he founded prosperous churches. This was 
the period of exile, during which Zinzendorf 
traveled extensively in both Europe and Amer¬ 
ica, and the society was very active in founding 
new settlements in various countries of Europe 
and in North America. 

c. At this time the society had to contend with 
great troubles in Europe. The Lutheran theo¬ 
logians were enraged because so many left their 
ranks to join the Brethren. Absurd charges 
were brought against them. 

d. Zinzendorf continued till the time of his death 
to direct the affairs of the communities. He 



/ 


BIOGRAPHY 105 


devoted the greater part of his possessions to 
the cause, and died in 1760 in the full enjoy¬ 
ment of blessed communion with his Saviour. 


VIII BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 
1 Franklin the Printer. 

a. Benjamin Franklin was the youngest son of a 
family of seventeen; he was born in Boston in 
the year 1706. His education was very deficient, 
and at twelve he became an apprentice to his 
brother James to learn the trade of printer. 

b. He proved very skilful in the work. While en¬ 
gaged in it, he also repaired the deficiencies of 
his education. The result was that after an 
apprenticeship of three years he also tried his 
hand as a contributor. 

c. Estrangement between himself and his brother 
caused him to drift into Philadelphia, a friend¬ 
less and pennyless lad of seventeen; but he 
soon found employment and was highly appre¬ 
ciated by his employer. He finally succeeded in 
establishing himself in the printing business. 

d. In Philadelphia he married a young woman 
of his own station in life by whom he had two 
children. His best known publication is “Poor 
Richard’s Almanac.” In 1736 Franklin first 
took public office. 

2. Franklin the Scientist. 

a. In 1746 Franklin began those fruitful re¬ 
searches in electricity that gave him a place 
among the most famous scientists. He showed 
conclusively that thunderstorms are of elec¬ 
trical origin, and suggested the protection of 
buildings by lightning conductors. 

b. Besides this he made several other important 
discoveries, viz.: (1) the course of storms on 
the North American continent; (2) the course 





106 


BIOGRAPHY 


and most important characteristics of the gulf 
stream; (3) the diverse power of different col¬ 
ors to absorb solar heat. 

3. Franklin the Statesman. 

a. In 1757 he received a mission to England to 
defend the right of the provinces to levy cer¬ 
tain taxes, and his work was crowned with suc¬ 
cess. A few years later, viz., in 1764, he was 
sent on a second mission for the purpose of con¬ 
testing the right of Parliament to tax the 
the American colonies, but this time he could 
not reconcile the conflicting interests. 

b. After returning to the United States he took 
an active part in the measures and deliberations 
that resulted in the declaration of independ¬ 
ence. 

c. In the winter of 1776-77 he was sent to France 
to secure, if possible, its assistance in the strug¬ 
gle for independence. He succeeded in making 
a treaty of alliance that brought material aid 
to the colonies. 

d. Then he served two terms as president of the 
superior executive council of Pennsylvania. 
After that he retired from public life and died 
at the age of 84. 


IX GEORGE WASHINGTON 

1. The Early Years of His Life. 

a. Washington was born at Bridges Creek, West¬ 
moreland county, Virginia, of good English 
stock. He spent his early years in fishing, 
hunting and a little reading. His education 
was deficient, yet he succeeded in acquiring a 
fluent and dignified style of English. 

b. In 1751 he lost one of his brothers, and in the 
following year his wealthy half-brother, Law- 




BIOGRAPHY 


107 


rence Washington, died, leaving him guardian 
of his only daughter, and heir to his estates, 
if the daughter died without issue. 

c. About that time the French were connecting 
their settlements on the Great Lakes with 
those on the Mississippi by a chain of posts on 
the Ohio. The governor of Virginia resented 
this. After due warnings an expedition was 
sent against them, of which Washington was 
the second in command. 

d. At the close of the Seven Year's War Wash¬ 
ington married a rich, young widow, Martha 
Custis (1759). Since he had also fallen heir to 
the possessions of his niece, who had died, he 
became one of the richest men in the land. 

2. Washington and the War of Independence. 

a. When disputes with England arose, he urged 
peaceful measures at first, but when he clearly 
saw the question at issue, he decided to cast 
his lot with the colonies and to oppose England 
by force. 

b. At the time that Congress organized national 
resistance to the mother country it appointed 
Washington commander-in-chief of its armies, 
since he had proved his worth in the previous 
war. 

c. It was no small task that confronted him when 
he took the command, since the army entrusted 
to him consisted of farmers and mechanics, 
half-disciplined and half-armed, and the people 
gave him only half-hearted support. Yet he 
succeeded in transforming his troops into a 

well-disciplined and well-equipped army. 

/• 

d. During the war Washington showed himself 
the superior of practically every British gen¬ 
eral, with the possible exception of Cornwallis. 
His strategy was masterful and his Fabian 
policy brought him fame. Under his guidance 
the war was brought to a successful conclusion. 




108 


BIOGRAPHY 


3, Washington First President of the United States. 

a. After the war Washington retired to Mount 
Vernon and turned his attention to securing a 
strong government for his country by consti- 
tional means. And when in 1787 the conven¬ 
tion met that framed the constitution, Wash¬ 
ington, who represented Virginia, presided. 

b. When the government was organized, Wash¬ 
ington became its first president. He proved 
to be an able executive. In the struggle be¬ 
tween the parties of Hamilton and Jefferson 
he chose the side of the former, believing, as 
he did, in a strong central government. After 
serving two terms he refused to be renomi¬ 
nated and retired. He remains to this day 
“the father of his country.” 


X ABRAHAM LINCOLN 

1. Lincoln’s Humble Descent and Early Life. 

a. Abraham Lincoln was born of Kentucky 
pioneer stock in the year 1809. His father was 
a man without education and his mother died 
before he was ten years old. A stepmother 
soon took her place, who trained her stepchil¬ 
dren as faithfully as her own. 

b. He learned the little that was taught in the 
the backwoods schools and then found employ¬ 
ment in rough farm work. His restless father 
moved with his family from Kentucky to In¬ 
diana, and from Indiana to Illinois, where 
Abraham helped him in felling trees, building a 
log cabin and splitting rails for fences. 

c. In Illinois he gradually entered public life, serv¬ 
ing successively as captain in an expedition 
against Black Hawk, as village postmaster and 
as deputy to the county surveyor. Meanwhile 
he devoted his spare time to the study of law 
and grammar. 




BIOGRAPHY 


109 


d. In 1836 he was admitted to the bar, and the 
following year he moved to Springfield. In 
1846-48 he served one term in the United States 
House of Representatives, and during the five 
following years he devoted himself to his law 
practice. 

2. Lincoln’s Rise into Prominence. 

a. In 1854 Stephen Douglas, by his Kansas-Ne- 
braska bill, repealed the Missouri Compromise, 
thereby arousing intense feeling in the North. 
Lincoln’s address at the State Fair in Spring- 
field made him one of the leaders of the Anti- 
Nebraskan forces. 

b. When the Republican Party was formed in 
1856 to oppose the extension of slavery, Lin¬ 
coln was its most prominent leader in Illinois. 
At the national convention in Philadelphia he 
was a conspicuous candidate for Vice-President. 

c. The famous joint debates of Lincoln and Doug¬ 
las in seven different towns attracted the at¬ 
tention of the whole country and gave the 
former a national reputation. They made him 
the logical candidate for President in 1860. 

3. Lincoln President of the United States. 

a. - The election of Lincoln brought to the helm of 

the State the man of the hour. He was a great 
statesman, a shrewd organizer, an orator of 
unusual ability and a true leader of men. 

b. During the critical period of the war he guided 
the destinies of the nation with a masterful 
hand. His main objects were to preserve the 
Union and to free the slaves, and he succeeded 
in both. 

c. Lincoln was reelected in 1864, and in the fol¬ 
lowing year the war terminated in the sur¬ 
render of Lee at Richmond. Then there was 
great rejoicing among the people, but this was 
turned to grief when shortly after Lincoln fell 
by the hand of an assassin. 




EDUCATION 



» 


s 


















EDUCATION 


111 


EDUCATION 


I THE CHARACTER AND VALUE OF 

EDUCATION 

1. The Character of Education. 

a. Education is a process by which one part of 
mankind imparts to another those intellectual, 
moral and religious ideas that constitute the 
accumulated treasures of past generations. 

b. We may distinguish between conscious and un¬ 
conscious education. A child’s environment in 
the family and in society, in church and state, 
the scenes that present themselves to its view 
and the words it hears, these all have a forma¬ 
tive influence. But in a more restricted and 
proper sense education is the conscious effort 
of certain persons to enrich, to influence and to 
direct the lives of others by means of instruc¬ 
tion and discipline. 

c. The work of education should be based on a 
true conception of its object, the child. It 
should bear in mind that the child is created 
in the image of God, that it is endowed with 
faculties and powers that are big with promise, 
that it lies under the blighting influence of sin 
and that (if it be a child of the covenant) it is 
sanctified in Jesus Christ. 

d. The aim of education is to develop those facul¬ 
ties and powers and to enrich the child with 
whatsoever may serve to make it answer to 
the purpose of its existence, a life of true use¬ 
fulness and joy in the service of its God. 





112 


EDUCATION 


\ 


2. The Value of Education. 

a. The great value of education is often found in 
the fact that it increases the earning capacity 
of man. Now, it certainly does this as a rule, 
and we need not despise, but should rather ap¬ 
preciate this boon of education. Yet its chief 
value can never be found in the material re¬ 
wards it brings. 

b. A greater benefit of education lies in the in¬ 
creased influence and usefulness of man. And 
to the man that has any ambition it certainly 
seems desirable to occupy an influential posi¬ 
tion. But even this is not the highest value 
of education. Great influence may be a curse 
rather than a blessing. 

c. The greatest value of education lies in the fact 
that, if it is really what it should be, it de¬ 
velops in man the latent powers and faculties 
with which God endowed him, fills him with 
noble ideals, inspires him to move in a God- 
ward direction and fits him for a life of Chris¬ 
tian leadership. 


II COMPULSORY EDUCATION 

1. The Idea of Compulsory Education. 

a. Compulsory education means that children of 
school age, usually from 5 to 13 or 14 years, 
are required to be present in school while it is 
in session. Where it is in vogue, parents are 
compelled by the state to send their children to 
school, though not necessarily to the State or 
Public School. 

b. In order to enforce such a regulation it is, of 
course, necessary that the State be empowered 
to enforce obedience by fining negligent parents 
or by sending them to prison. 


s 




EDUCATION 


113 


c. The practice of compelling attendance at school 
began toward the end of the eighteenth cen¬ 
tury. It is more than sixty years ago that 
school attendance laws were made in our coun¬ 
try, but they were made effective only in the 
last twenty-five years. 

2. Some Objections to Compulsory Education. 

a. There are some who maintain that the State 
in making and enforcing laws that compel at¬ 
tendance at school exceeds its legitimate func¬ 
tions and encroaches on the rights of parents. 

b. Others regard such compulsion as unwise and 
inexpedient, because compulsion is always more 
or less odious, and public sentiment is against 
it. This consideration, no doubt, retarded the 
enforcement of the law in our country for sev¬ 
eral years. 

c. And finally it is objected by some that com¬ 
pulsory education works a great hardship on 
those parents who cannot afford to send their 
children to school for a period of eight years, 
but need their earning capacity for the main- 
tainance of the family. 

3. Considerations that Justify Compulsory Education. 

a. It is absolutely necessary for a State to insist 
on a certain amount of education for its future 
citizens. This is true particularly if the State 
is a democracy in which the people rule and 
if suffrage is universal. 

b. Then there is always a large number of par¬ 

ents that are not concerned about the general 
welfare, but only have an eye for their own 
material interests. These must be compelled 
to do what others do voluntarily, viz., see to it 
that their children receive the necessary edu¬ 
cation. s. 






114 , 


EDUCATION 


c. The systematic character of the work at school 
make regular attendance imperative. Without 
this it cannot be truly efficient. Irregular at¬ 
tendance defeats the best efforts. 


Ill EDUCATION IN COLONIAL TIMES 

1. Primary Education in New England. 

a. In New England primary schools were estab¬ 
lished from the very beginning. They were 
“free schools,” i. e., schools in which the chil¬ 
dren of the poor as well as those of the rich 
could receive instruction. In 1635 the people 
of Boston already organized a school, and in 
the following years several schools were estab¬ 
lished. And as early as 1647 the General Court 
enacted that every town of fifty householders 
should have a school. The Pilgrims brought 
the idea of free schools with them from the 
Netherlands. 

b. The commonwealth assumed the duties of edu¬ 
cation and provided for the establishment and 
maintainance of schools by law. It is signifi¬ 
cant, however, that the first school law of Con¬ 
necticut says that the Colony interfered in the 
interest of the child because so many parents 
and masters neglected their duties. 

c. It stands to reason and is also very evident 
from the early school laws that the colonists 
emphasized the moral and religious education 
of their children. They regarded ignorance 
as one of the greatest allies of satan. Among 
their school teachers were men of great ability. 

d. The Massachusetts law of 1647 and the Con¬ 
necticut code of 1650 embody the only success¬ 
ful attempts at a school system in colonial days. 

2. Primary Education in New York and Pennsylvania. 

a. Soon after their arrival in New York the Dutch 
established free schools. In fact, Brooklyn 




EDUCATION 


115 


claims to have had the first free public school 
in the United States. Practically the schools 
of New York were largely maintained and con¬ 
trolled by the Protestant Reformed Dutch 
Church, and, as might be expected, gave reli¬ 
gion a very prominent place in the work of edu¬ 
cation. 

b. After the Dutch were supplanted by the Eng¬ 
lish little attention was paid to education. The 
newcomers would not aid Dutch schools that 
were controlled by a non-conforming church. 

c. In Pennsylvania education was largely a mat¬ 
ter of charity. Franklin and other wealthy 
citizens, aided by contributions from Europe, 
organized the “German Society” for the found¬ 
ing and maintainance of schools for the chil¬ 
dren of German settlers. But since the people 
did not like to be objects of charity, the work 
of education remained in a deplorable state 
here. 

3. Primary Education in Virginia. 

a. The cavaliers that landed in Virginia were not 
acquainted with the idea of free schools, and 
when they heard of them, opposed them. 
The rich employed private tutors for the edu¬ 
cation of their children. The religious element 
was a negligible quantity. 

b. There was no system of free schools in Virginia 
until the time of Thomas Jefferson. 


IV THE RISE OF STATE SCHOOLS 

1. Conditions Preceding Their Establishment. 

a. In the Middle Ages the Church was the foster 
mother of the schools. She not only estab¬ 
lished and maintained them, but also controlled 
the instruction that was given. The privileges 
of education were limited to the children of 






EDUCATION 


116 


the higher classes and instruction was almost 
exclusively religious. 

b. The Reformation brought about some impor¬ 
tant changes. It emphasized the necessity of 
free schools, i. e., schools for the people in gen¬ 
eral, and the obligation of parents to have their 
children educated. It enlisted both the Church 
and the civil government in the work of edu¬ 
cation and gave secular studies a larger place 
in the curriculum. 

c. During the eighteenth century the work of edu¬ 
cation in Europe was at a low ebb. The par¬ 
ents were generally negligent of their duties, 
and little schooling was provided for the mass 
of the people. 

V 

2. The Change Wrought at the End of the Eighteenth 

Century. 

a. A great change was brought about by the 
French Revolution, which was to a great ex¬ 
tent a reaction against the exactions of the 
rich and the oppression of the poor by the 
privileged classes. 

b. A new idea of the State was placed prominently 
in the foreground, viz., that the State is an or¬ 
ganization composed of free citizens that have 
equal rights and are subject to no higher au¬ 
thority. The nation, organized into a State, 
now becomes the measure of all things. 

c. This conception of the State naturally led to 
a general education by the State and for the 
State, an education from which the religious 
element was gradually excluded by force of 
necessity. 

3. The Principles on which the State Proceeds in the 

Work of Education. 

a. The State is supreme and an end in itself, and 
its preservation demands that its citizens, who 
are the real rulers, be well educated. 


i 



EDUCATION 


117 


b. The right of the State to self-preservation 
carries with it the right to establish schools 
and to demand a certain kind and degree of 
instruction. 

c. If there is no general voluntary attendance at 
the schools, the state naturally has the added 
right to make attendance compulsory. 

d. And this again makes it necessary that educa¬ 
tion be offered gratuitously. This only would 
make it possible for children of all classes to 
obtain the required instruction. Moreover, it 
also necessitates the exclusion of all religion. 


V THE STATE AS EDUCATOR 

1. The Character of the State. 

a. The State is an organism consisting of the 
the people of a certain locality with a govern¬ 
ment as its head. It is not only an organism, 
however, but also an organization, an associa¬ 
tion of people on a given territory for the pur¬ 
pose of regulating its external public affairs. 

b. The functions of the State pertain to the gen¬ 
eral or public interests of its citizens. Still 
more specific, they relate to the external af¬ 
fairs and the external relations of the people. 
The State must promote the general welfare of 
its citizens, guard their rights and protect 
them from dangers. And with a view to these 
things it must levy taxes for the maintainance 
of its several departments. 

c. In fulfilling these duties, however, the State 
must honor the freedom of conscience, and 
should never deign to class politics, but always 
uphold the great principle of equal rights for 
all. 




118 


EDUCATION 


2 The Disabilities of the State as Educator. 

a. The work of education does not properly be¬ 
long to the jurisdiction of the State. While 
the State is concerned with externals, the work 
of education pertains to the spiritual side of 
man’s existence, and is also itself a spiritual 
process. 

b. Since a great diversity of religous views is rep¬ 
resented in every State, it cannot, in its educa¬ 
tional activities, take account of the deepest 
that is in man, i. e., of his religious character, 
without infringing on the freedom of con¬ 
science. 

c. And because our religious principles determine 
our view of the world and of life in general, 
and the State is bound to disregard these, it 
must either become very superficial in its in¬ 
struction, or base this on philosophical princi¬ 
ples that are inimical to true religion. And 
even so it falls into the error that it seeks to 
avoid. 

3. The Rights of the State in the Matter of Education. 

a. With a view to the general welfare of the com¬ 
munity the State has a perfect right to demand 
of the parents under its jurisdiction that they 
provide for their children a certain amount of 
education. 

b. And if many parents are negligent in this im¬ 
portant duty, it is incumbent on the State to 
make provision for the education of such neg¬ 
lected children, according to the best of its 
ability. State or public schools will then have 
to be established and supported from public 
funds. Such schools should be the exception, 
however, and not the rule. 






EDUCATION 


119 




VI THE BIBLE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

1. The Gradual Secularization of the Public School. 

a. There was a time when the schools were dom¬ 
inated by the Church and gave the Bible a 
place of honor. In course of time, however, 
they were secularized, i.e., emancipated from 
the Church and adopted and maintained by the 
State. 

b. When State-supported schools came into ex¬ 
istence, dissastisfaction soon arose with the 
teaching, under State auspices, of any form of 
religious .belief. 

c. The first step in the removal of this dissatis¬ 
faction was to reduce religious teaching to the 
lowest possible terms, viz., the reading of the 
Bible, the recitation of the Lord’s Prayer and 
the singing of a hymn at the opening of the 
daily school exercises. 

d. Then discussion arose as to what particular 
version of the Bible ought to be used, and be¬ 
fore long some maintained that the Bible ought 
to be excluded from the schools altogether be¬ 
cause it fostered sectarian teachings. 

2. The Present State of Affairs. 

a. The great majority of our State Constitutions 
simply stipulate that instruction in the public 
schools shall be non-sectarian, and that no 
public money shall be used for sectarian pur¬ 
poses. A few of them expressly permit or even 
require that the Bible shall be read. 

b. At the same time the separate school districts 
have a great deal of freedom in the matter of 
religious instruction. In several communities 
the Bible is read in school and religious exer¬ 
cises are held. Should anyone in the district 
object, however, the practice would have to be 
stopped immediately. 




120 


E D U C A T I 0 N 


c. Practically, therefore, the public school in many 
places still has a quasi-religious character. But 
according to the strictly legal status of the 
school, as defined by Judge Cooley, it should 
be absolutely neutral as to religious bias. The 
Supreme Court of Wisconsin delivered a deci¬ 
sion to the effect that the Bible may not be 
read in school because it is a sectarian book. 

3. The Right to Exclude the Bible from the Public 
School. 

a. If we accept the view that the State should 
regulate its educational work according to its 
predominant character, the position may be 
defended that our Government, which is in a 
general sense Christian, should give the Bible 
a place in school. 

b. But proceeding on the modern, and, it would 
seem, correct view that the State must give 
equal rights to all its citizens, the position that 
the Bible should have a. place in the public 
school, is not tenable. 


VII THE CHILD AND RELIGION 

1. The Religious Character of the Child. 

a. Man, and therefore also the child, is essentially 
a religious being, since he was created in the 
the image of God. And even when he fell in 
sin he did not completely cease to be the image- 
bearer of the Most High. Potentially he re¬ 
mained a religious being. This is perfectly 
evident from the fact that even the most de¬ 
praved nations of the world have some form of 
religion. 

b. While this is true, the regenerating influence 
of the Holy Spirit is absolutely necessary in 
order to change this potentiality into actuality, 
and to make man’s life truly religious in all its 





121 


EDUCATION 


varied activities. And in virtue of the covenant 
of grace believers may proceed on the assump¬ 
tion that their children possess the principle 
of a new life in Jesus Christ. 

2. The Child and Religious Instruction. 

a. There are some who maintain that the child 
should not be instructed in religious matters, 
since this would be detrimental to the child 
and would make it unfit for a truly useful and 
joyful life on earth. This is utterly absurd, 
however, in view of the fact that there is in the 
heart of every child a religious craving; it is 
particularly so in the case of our covenant 
children. The seed that is in the child must 
be brought in contact with the Word of God if 
it is to develop to maturity. 

b. Of those who believe that the child should in¬ 
deed receive religious instruction, some would 
postpone this until the child is able to grasp 
religious truths. But in fact we should sup¬ 
ply the child with a fund of religious truths 
as soon as possible. It understands far more 
of these things than we surmise, and what it 
does not understand for the present will prove 
valuable later on. 

c. Again, it is held by some at present that the 
child should be taught only a so-called natural 
religion, based on God’s revelation in nature. 
But the only religion that answers to the deep¬ 
est needs of the heart is the Christian religion. 
Therefore it should be taught. 

3. The Agencies for This Religious Teaching. 

a. The child should be taught religious truths 
first of all in the home, since the parents are 
the natural and responsible educators of their 
children. 

b. Then it should receive religious instruction in 
the school, where the teachers take the place 





122 


EDUCATION 


of the parents and should teach the children 
entrusted to their care in the same spirit in 
which they are taught at home, 
c. And finally the Church, too, should give the 
child religious instruction with a view to the 
place it must occupy and the responsibilities it 
must assume in its midst. 


VIII FREE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS FOR 
THE COVENANT CHILDREN 

1. What Are Free Christian Schools. 

a. They are schools that are called free (1) not 
because they furnish gratuitous instruction, 
for this is true of our public schools rather 
than of our free Christian schools; but. (2) 
since they are free from the domination of 
every organization whose special task lies out¬ 
side of the realm of education, such as the 
Church and the State, and (3) because they are 
established and maintained on an independent 
basis by societies that are organized for the 
special task of making provision for the educa¬ 
tion of children. 

b. They are called Christian schools, or Schools 
for Christian Instruction, because, in distinc¬ 
tion from the public schools with their so- 
called neutral instruction, they aim at giving 
the children a Christian education; an educa¬ 
tion that takes the religious character of the 
child into account, that is in harmony with 
the Word of God and permeated with the 
spirit of Christianity. 

2. Why Are These School Necessary for Covenant 

Children. 

a. Because they only proceed on the correct as- 
assumption that the parents are the natural 
educators of their children and should there- 





EDUCATION 


123 


fore be able to control the spirit in which these 
are educated. That this assumption is not 
false may be inferred both from nature and 
from the Bible. 

b. Because they only take cognizance of the re¬ 
quirements of God respecting the education of 
the covenant children and of the promise made 
by the parents when they offered their chil¬ 
dren for baptism, a promise of solemn signifi¬ 
cance, which they cannot disregard with im¬ 
punity. 

c. Because they only preserve true unity in the 
work of education. While the public school 
limits itself to the intellectual and so-called 
moral training of the children, and leaves re¬ 
ligion, or the training of the heart, to the home 
and the church, the Christian school proceeds 
on the principle that the life of the child is a 
unity, and that the head and the heart, that 
science and religion, cannot be separated with¬ 
out detriment to both. 

d. Because they only maintain the necessary har¬ 
mony between the education at school and that 
in the Christian home. The child that receives 
a Christian education should be similarly edu¬ 
cated in school or a dangerous dualism will 
enter the life of the child that is apt to make 
it a sceptic or an enemy of religion. 


IX STRUGGLE FOR FREE CHRISTIAN 
SCHOOLS IN THE NETHERLANDS 

1. The Condition of Education before 1848. 

a. At the end of the eighteenth century the work 
of education was in a deplorable condition in 
the Netherlands. Neither the church nor the 
parents paid any attention to it. Consequently 
it was highly necessary that energetic meas¬ 
ures should be taken. 





124 


EDUCATION 


b. Under these conditions it was a cause of re¬ 
joicing that the State took the matter in hand 
in 1801. The law that was made at this time 
provided for a very considerable development 
of the educational system. The use of the 
Bible was not forbidden in school, but the re¬ 
ligion that was taught was of such a character 
that even a heathen might have subscribed 
to it. 

c. After a comparatively short time the Catholics 
complained of the use of the Bible in school and 
objected to the singing of psalms. Moreover, 
the Jews were offended at the frequent mention 
of the name of Jesus. The Catholics claimed 
that the school had an orthodox-Protestant 
character. As a result the school was pro¬ 
claimed neutral and the Bible was removed. 

d. This, in turn, gave the Protestants reasons for 
dissatisfaction. Several voices of protest were 
heard, especially since the influence of the great 
European revival made itself felt. Some urged 
that the schools should be divided into differ¬ 
ent classes, according to the religious convic¬ 
tions of the citizens. 

2. The Beginnings of Free Christian Schools. 

a. In 1848 it was stipulated that they who wished 
to do so might establish their own schools un¬ 
der state supervision. The government even 
showed itself inclined to interpret the last 
clause liberally. 

b. When a new school law became necessary, it 
was hoped that this would guarantee perfect 
liberty for the establishment of special schools 
and would even provide for their maintainance 
in some way. But these hopes were shattered 
and the irreligious character of the state school 
was confirmed. 





EDUCATION 


125 


c. In view of these sad conditions various societies 
were formed to promote Christian education, 
and Christian schools were established in vari¬ 
ous places. 

3. Struggles and Victory. 

a. The struggle between the liberals and that 
powerful element of the nation that fought for 
free Christian schools gradually increased in 
intensity. Finally the friends of Christian in¬ 
struction made their right to be exempt from 
the general school tax a political issue. The 
liberals yielded nothing, and even proposed a 
law that would increase the burden. 

b. Then it was decided to petition the king not to 
sign the new law of 1878. A monster petition, 
signed by 305,869 citizens, was brought to the 
king, who received the deputation friendly, but 
yet ratified the new law. 

c. This disappointment did not discourage the 
Christian element of the nation; the experience 
rather inspired the petitioners to even greater 
zeal. The result was that they gained an im¬ 
portant political victory in 1888. Another law 
was now made, providing for a special subsidy 
for the free Christian schools. 


X OUR CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS AND 

PATRIOTISM 

1. The Charge Brought Against Our Christian 
Schools. 

a. The public school is confessedly established to 
enable the people to govern themselves, for the 
prevention of crime and to amalgamate the 
various elements that enter into our national 
life into a homogeneous whole. It is supposed 
to engender a national spirit and to create love 
for and devotion to our country, our traditions 
and the general welfare of our people. 





126 


EDUCATION 


b. Now it is claimed that “any division of educa¬ 
tional responsibility along sectarian lines.... 
promotes class interests, makes vicious teach¬ 
ing possible.... and leads away from our cher¬ 
ished traditions and our confident belief.” The 
charge is often made that our Christian schools 
are a menace to patriotism, i.e., that they fail 
to inspire the children with such a love for 
their country that they cheerfully obey its 
laws, defend its rights and promote its welfare 
after they have grown up. 

2. The Grounds on Which This Charge Rests. 

a. There is first of all the undoubted fact that, 
while the public schools find the purpose of 
their existence in the State, our Christian 

r schools exist primarily for the Kingdom of God. 
They proceed on the assumption that all States 
are subordinate to this Kingdom, which is in¬ 
ternational. 

b. It is maintained that where the State estab¬ 
lishes and maintains schools for the children 
under its jurisdiction, it is un-American and 
therefore unpatriotic to found separate schools. 
This is derogatory to our great public school 
system and to the State. 

c. We are told that the so-called sectarian schools 
foster sectional divisions among the people and 
thus counteract the unifying influence of the 
the public school. 

3. The Injustice of the Charge. 

a. The fact that the Christian school seeks above 
all the Kingdom of God is not inimical to pa¬ 
triotism ; in fact, it makes the children the very 
best patriots. It teaches them on the highest 
authority that they must obey their govern¬ 
ment, love their country and promote its wel¬ 
fare. The Christian school teaches the chil- 




EDUCATION 


127 


dren that they must do this for God's sake. 
There is no surer foundation for true patriot¬ 
ism. 

b. In view of the fact that our constitution recog¬ 
nizes the freedom of conscience, and that the 
State permits the establishment of free schools, 
the fact that our schools are not founded by the 
State does not necessarily make them un- 
American and unpatriotic. State establish¬ 
ment is not absolutely necessary to patriotism. 

c. And if it were true that a division of schools 
along sectarian lines is a check on patriotism, 
there would be little patriotism today in such 
countries as England and the Netherlands. Yet 
it will be hard to maintain that the English 
and the Dutch are not patriotic. It all depends 
on the teachings of the schools. And the spirit 
in our schools is just as soundly patriotic as 
that in the public school. 



Politics, Political Economy and Sociology 






POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 129 


POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY 
and SOCIOLOGY 


I THE RIGHT AND DESIRABILITY OF 
WOMAN SUFFRAGE 

1. How the Question of Woman Suffrage Arose. 

a. The problem of woman suffrage had an historic 
origin. It was born of the false philosophy of 
the French Revolution, that substituted for the 
organic the mechanical conception of society 
and of the state, as being an aggregate, not of 
families, but of individuals. 

b. In the second place the long oppression of the 
female sex led to reaction. More particularly, 
it was especially the strong personality of the 
Anglo-Saxon woman that asserted itself 
against the tyranny of the men, sneeringly 
called, “the lords of creation.” 

c. And in the third place the alarming decrease 
the number of marriages necessitated an ever 
increasing number of women te seek employ¬ 
ment outside of the home. The trades and pro¬ 
fessions were gradually opened up to them, 
and this fostered among them the spirit of in¬ 
dependence. Their interest in public life nat¬ 
urally led them to seek the ballot. 

2. Is It Right that Suffrage Should Be Extended to 

Woman? 

a. It is certainly not in harmony with the organic 
conception of society that is recognized in the 
Word of God, nor with the representative char¬ 
acter of man that is made very prominent in 
the Bible, particularly in the Old Testament and 
in the Epistles of Paul. 





130 POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 


b. Neither does it tally with the place assigned to 
woman in the Bible, where she is subjected to 
man in virtue of her creation out of man, and 
where she is referred to the family as her 
proper sphere. 

c. And finally it is contrary to the very nature of 
woman. She is so constituted that she is pe¬ 
culiarly adapted to the varied duties of the 
home and not to public life. Every true woman 
finds her ideal in the home. 

3. Is It Desirable that Woman Should Have the 

Ballot? 

a. It would not be desirable for women themselves 
to be drawn into the limelight of public life, but 
would undoubtedly be detrimental to the finer 
sensibilities of their womanly nature. 

b. It would prove disastrous to the home, since it 
would draw women away from their proper 
sphere, and would very likely cause division be¬ 
tween them and their husbands.' Only at this 
price would they be able to accomplish some¬ 
thing in politics that cannot be accomplished 
just as well now. 

c. It would be of very questionable value for the 
state, since women as a rule allow themselves 
to be controlled by their emotions rather than 
by their intellect. 


II THE ABOLISHMENT OF CAPITAL 

PUNISHMENT 

1. Capital Punishment an Ancient and General 
Practice. 

a. Capital punishment is the most severe punish¬ 
ment that can be meted out to a transgressor. 
It consists of depriving an offender of his life 
by legal authority, and should therefore be 
carefully distinguished from private vengeance. 





POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 1 31 


b. The death penalty was applied from the earli¬ 
est times to tliose who committed wilful mur¬ 
der or some other heinous offense. Among 
Israel several crimes were punished by death. 
This was also the case in the Roman empire. 
In later times, however, it was almost exclu¬ 
sively in cases of wilful murder or treason that 
the death penalty was carried out. 

c. In the earliest times and in the Middle Ages 
the death penalty was often accompanied with 
the most terrible tortues, such as death on the 
wheel, quartering, immersion in boiling oil, etc. 
Now it usually inflicted by hanging, by the 
sword, by the electric chair or by a firing squad. 

Opposition to Capital Punishment. 

a. Even in the ancient church some were opposed 
to capital punishment, and later on the Wal- 
denses and the Anabaptists declared them¬ 
selves against it. The greatest opposition arose, 
however, about the middle of the eighteenth 
century. Since that time public opinion be¬ 
came increasingly hostile to the death penalty. 
Jurors often refused to convict one of wilful 
murder, even in the face of the clearest evi¬ 
dence, especially if the culprit was a woman. 

b. In several countries and also in some of our 
states capital punishment was abolished. Sev¬ 
eral reasons are given for this. It is said by 
some criminologists that the State has no right 
to take anyone’s life, and that execution, espe¬ 
cially when carried out in public, has a degrad¬ 
ing effect on the popular mind, and rather ex¬ 
cites criminal passions than acts as a deterrent. 

c. Others urge more sentimental reasons against 
the death penalty, as, for instance, that it 
• makes conversion impossible, that a miscar¬ 
riage of judgment is possible and that it is hard 
for a judge or a jury to condem one to death. 





132 POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 


3. Capital Punishment Perfectly Legitimate. 

a. The Word of God explicitly demands that the 
murderer shall pay for his crime with his life 
(Gen. 9:6). This demand is based on the fact 
that man is created in the image of God. 

b. The death penalty is, moreover, based on the 
absolute justice of taking life for life. This 
principle cannot be set aside by sentimental 
reasons. 

c. Capital punishment is the most deterrent and 
therefore the most effective punishment. Some 
European countries and some of our states were 
compelled to reinstate it, after it had been abol¬ 
ished. 


Ill CIVIL SERVICE REFORM 
1. The Spoils System. 

a. The question of civil service reform arose from 
the fact that the president of the United States 
and the various governors of the states have 
the power of appointing a vast number of petty 
officials, such as postmasters in villages, cus¬ 
tom house officers at sea ports, clerk in various 
departments of the administration, etc. 

b. In the beginning of the previous century the 
vicious practice grew up in New York and 
Pennsylvania of using the appointive offices as 
bribes or rewards for partisan services. One 
could gain an office by securing votes for a suc¬ 
cessful candidate. 

c. President Jackson was the first one to apply 
this method on a national scale. While during 
the first forty years of our independent exist¬ 
ence as a nation only seventy-four persons were 
removed from office, Jackson in a single year 
threw out 2,000. The great question was no 
more whether a person was fit for his work, but 





POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 133 

whether he had faithfully served the winning 
candidate. This method was called the “Spoils 
System,” since Macey of New York declared in 
the Senate, “to the victor belong the spoils.” 

2. Efforts to Reform. 

a. It was not until 1867 that any important effort 
was made to remedy the evil. Mr. Jencks of 
Rhode Island introduced a bill, made an able 
report and supplemented this by several 
speeches, denouncing the practice. Though 
death soon after took him away, he had opened 
the eyes of many. 

b. At the instance of President Grant Congress 
passed an act authorizing the president to regu¬ 
late the admission to civil service in a manner 
that would best promote the efficiency of the 
work. He appointed a Civil Service Commis¬ 
sion, and competitive examinations were intro¬ 
duced. 

c. In 1883 a great victory was scored, when Con¬ 
gress passed an act requiring competitive ex¬ 
aminations of candidates and a period of pro¬ 
bation before definite appointment. In the fol¬ 
lowing years the number of offices brought un¬ 
der this rule was gradually increased. 

3. The Importance of the New Method. 

a. In the first place it put the ban on a great deal 
of corrupt politics: on bribery and favoritism 
and on the creation of unnecessary offices. 

b. In the second place it gave greater stability to 
the service, and thereby rendered possible im¬ 
proved methods of business. The work was 
made far more efficient and beneficial to the 
country. 

c. And in the third place it heightened the self- 
respect of the appointed persons and brings out 
the best that is in them, since they know that 
their service depends on their merit. 



134 POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 

- 

IV LIBERTY OF THE PRESS 

1. Importance of the Press. 

a. When we speak of the press in this connection, 
we refer particularly to the newspaper or peri¬ 
odical literature of a country, state, city or 
township. 

b. The press may be a powerful influence for 
good, since it enters the homes of the people 
monthly, weekly or even daily. It diffuses in¬ 
telligence, often calls attention to existing evils, 
directs the mind into healthy channels and aids 
in works of reformation. 

c. On the other hand it may also exercise a cor¬ 
respondingly great influence for evil. It often 
creates a love for news simply as news, which 
is then frequently mistaken for knowledge. 
It fosters a rapid and therefore superficial 
movement of the mind, creates a love for sen¬ 
sation and often trespasses in an unwarranted 
way on personal privacy. In many cases it 
represents partisan interests and colors its 
news to suit the interested parties. Sad to say, 
it is frequently the organ of capital and not of 
moral interests. 

2. Should This Great Power Be Free? 

a. Opinions differ on this point. A more or less 
rigorous censorship of the press exists in most 
of the European countries, especially in Russia. 
In England it was not until 1764 that the right 
of the press to discuss public affairs was estab¬ 
lished. As far as our own country is concerned, 
censorship was sometimes exercised in the 
earliest days of our national existence, but it 
was always unpopular. 

b. It would seem that freedom of the press is a 
natural right, involved in the general right of 
personal liberty, a right which the government 
must guarantee and protect. Liberty of opin- 




POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 135 


ion, liberty of speech and liberty of the press 
belong together and should be enjoyed in every 
free country. The censorship formerly prac¬ 
ticed is a violation of personal liberty. 

3. Should This Liberty Be Unrestricted? 

a. It should be constantly borne in mind that lib¬ 
erty is not licentiousness. Liberty may be 
abused, and it is no more than right that the 
editor of a paper should be held responsible for 
such abuse. There can be no absolutely unre¬ 
stricted liberty of the press. A power as great 
as the press would then become extremely dan¬ 
gerous. 

b. Special times naturally call for special meas¬ 
ures in this respect also. In times of war the 
government may find that it is necessary to 
put restrictions on the press that would not be 
thought of otherwise, lest it become a positive 
danger to the country. 


V THE SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND 

STATE 

1. The Existing Relation between Church and State 
in History. 

a. When Constantine the Great was emperor of 
Rome, Christianity became the State religion, 
with the emperor as “pontifex maximus” (chief 
priest). The Church became an institution of 
the State; only orthodox Christians could be 
citizens of the empire. 

b. After the fall of the western empire the pope 
virtually succeeded the emperor as “pontifex 
maximus” and appropriated great temporal au¬ 
thority. From the time of Pope Gregory VII 
the Church attempted for several centuries to 
lord it over the State. And though it did not 
altogether succeed, yet it had a preponderating 
influence in civil affairs. 





136 POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 


c. The Reformers shook off the papal or hier- 
archial yoke and claimed for the Church the 
right of self-government, the right to call and 
ordain ministers and the power of excommuni- 
. cation. Yet Luther allowed the princes con¬ 
siderable influence in Church affairs, and 
though Calvin resented State interference in 
Church matters, even he did not get away from 
State control altogether. At present Church 
and State exist alongside of each other as two 
separate independent organizations, each one 
having an authority and sphere of its own. 

2. The Principles Underlying the Separation of 

Church and State. 

a. There is first of all the political principle of 
liberty and equality, which considers every at¬ 
tempt at compulsion by the civil powers in re¬ 
ligious matters as an infringement on the free¬ 
dom of conscience and on liberty of thought 
and action. Should the State favor any par¬ 
ticular Church, it would disregard the equality 
of its citizens. 

b. Secondly, the religious principle of the spiritual 
independence of the Church comes into con¬ 
sideration. Here the underlying conception is 
that of the Church as a spiritual body that ex¬ 
ists for spiritual purposes and is governed by 
its own spiritual laws. Such a body cannot 
submit to the domination of a State that nat¬ 
urally comprises many that are entirely indif¬ 
ferent to its beliefs. Dictation of the State in 
the spiritual affairs of the Church would dis¬ 
honor Christ. 

3 Some Important Distinctions to Be Borne in Mind. 

a. Separation of Church and States does not mean 
that the two are absolutely separate, so that 
v the one is in no way concerned with the affairs 
of the other. The Church does not consist of 




POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 137 


disembodied spirits that live in ethereal re¬ 
gions, but of living men, who are also citizens 
of the State. The State must protect the 
Church and guard her property. On the other 
hand the Church must lend its moral support 
to the State and will virtually be the main¬ 
stay of society. 

b. Separation of Church and State does not nec¬ 
essarily mean separation of religion and poli¬ 
tics. Religious principles should underly the 
whole life of a Christian and have a controlling 
influence in it. The Christian must be a Chris¬ 
tian in politics as well as anywhere else. 


VI THE POWER OF PUBLIC OPINION 

1. What Is Public Opinion. 

a. Public opinion is the current thought or senti¬ 
ment in a community respecting some particu¬ 
lar matter. Such an opinion is soon formed 
whenever a great deal is said or written about 
a person or thing. 

b. The geographical extent of such an opinion is 
naturally dependent on the matter to which it 
pertains. It may be of local import, but it may 
also be of general significance. Hence public 
opinion may be limited to a village or city, but 
may also be state-wide or even national in its 
dimensions. 

c. The extent of public opinion regarding any par¬ 
ticular matter, also depends to a large extent 
on the means that are employed in its forma¬ 
tion, such as books and periodicals, meetings 
in town halls, the pulpit and the platform, and 
especially the newspapers. Many people en¬ 
trust themselves entirely to the guidance of 
their dailies. 




138 POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 


2. Public Opinion a Mighty Power in Life. 

a. Public opinion has been the fruitful mother of 
many laws. It engendered several usages, and 
these gradually crystalized into laws. And 
even after these laws were made they needed 
the constant support of public opinion. 

b. History teaches us that public opinion often 
inspired important action, in many cases even 
an action that was contrary to the existing 
order. It has erected scaffolds and gallows, 
but also inspired to noble deeds and glorious 
struggles. 

c. One is aware of the power of public opinion in 
every-day life. It determines to a great extent 
one's dress and public behavior. In times of 
labor strikes both parties court the smile of 
public opinion, and nations at war are abso¬ 
lutely in need of its good will. 

d. Public opinion exercises such a powerful influ¬ 
ence because there are always people that have 
no opinion of their own, others that are want¬ 
ing in the moral courage to resist public opin¬ 
ion and still others that love public praise and 
therefore willingly yield to its guidance. 

3. Our Relation to Public Opinion. 

a. This will naturally depend on the character of 
public opinion in any given case. If it be con¬ 
trary to the Word of God, we must resist its 
influence. With a view to this it will be im¬ 
perative that we develop a large measure of in¬ 
tellectual, moral and spiritual strength. 

b. If public opinion leads us in the right direction, 
we should gratefully acknowledge its influence 
and follow where it leads. Above all, we should 
attempt to form public opinion in harmony with 
our principles. It should be one of our weapons 
in aggressive warfare. 




POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 139 


VII CALVINISM AND POLITICS 

1. Historical Evidence of the Political Influence of 

Calvinism. 

a. Through the influence of Calvin and the appli¬ 
cation of his principles the city of Geneva was 
entirely transformed. Not only its religious, 
but also its civil life experienced a radical 
change. The city became a sort of theocracy 
that regulated its life according to the stand¬ 
ard of the moral law. 

b. It was due to the liberating influence of Cal¬ 
vinism also that the Netherlands, however 
small and insignificant, was able to cope with 
the mighty kingdom of Spain and to free itself 
from the hated yoke. It owes not only its free¬ 
dom of conscience, but also its constitutional 
liberties to the principles of the great Re¬ 
former. 

c. The glorious Revolution in England of the 
year 1688 was brought about by the spiritual 
sons of Calvin, by the Independents and Puri¬ 
tans, led by such men as Cromwell and William 
III. Since that time the rights and liberties of 
men were respected in England as never before. 

d. Several great historians testify to the fact that 
the people of the United States too owe their 
civil and religious liberty to the influence of 
Calvinism. The influence of the New England 
Puritans and of the Scotch-Irish was a deter¬ 
mining factor in our War of Independence. 

2. The Explanation of This Influence of Calvinism. 

a. In the first place this influence of Calvinism is 
due to the fact that it is not merely a doctrine 
of salvation, but represents a view of the world 
and of life in general. Hence not only the life 
of the Church, but that of the family, of so¬ 
ciety and of the State as well come under its 
sway. 


; 




140 POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 


b. In the second place its doctrine of the absolute 
sovereignty of God comes in consideration. It 
teaches man to submit to the authority of tem¬ 
poral kings and princes only for God's sake, 
and to obey them merely as long as their de¬ 
mands are in harmony with the Word of God. 

c. In the third place it imparts strength to its 
adherents by giving them the assurance that 
they are the elect children of God, heirs to ever¬ 
lasting life. In this conviction they are strong 
and even invincible. 

c. In the fourth place the fact that Calvinists gen¬ 
erally accept the Presbyterian form of Church 
government, and therefore gives the people an 
active part in the government of the Church, 
increases their love for freedom, their sense of 
independence and their feeling of responsibility. 

e. And finally the intolerance of Calvinism over 
against everything that is not in harmony with 
the Word of God contributes to its unyielding- 
strength. It always opposes unbelief with posi¬ 
tive principles derived from God’s revelation. 


VIII CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM IN THE 
UNITED STATES 


1. Its History. 

a. As early as 1849 Henry James, Sr., argued the 
identity of Christianity and Socialism in a lec¬ 
ture that he delivered at Boston. In 1872 a 
Christian Labor Union was organized in that 
city, and in the years 1874-75 Jesse H. James 
published a paper there that was to all intents 
a paper representing Christian Socialism. 

b. Yet the name Christian Socialism was not used 
in America until an organization was effected 
in 1889 in the city of Boston that was called 
“The Society of Christian Socliaists.” The 
Rev. W. D. P. Bliss was its leader. 





POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 141 


c. In the years 1887-93 three other societies were 
formed for the promotion of Christian Social¬ 
ism, viz., “The Church Association for the Ad¬ 
vancement of the Interests of Labor, “The 
Christian Social Union and “The Brotherhood 
of the Kingdom,” of which the first was the 
most radical and the most influential. In 1906 
“The Christian Socialist Fellowship” was 
formed and since 1904 “The Christian Social¬ 
ist,” now the organ of the Fellowship, was pub¬ 
lished in Chicago. 

2. Its Principles. 

a. The principles of Christian Socialism vary a 
great deal even within the limits of the United 
States. Yet there are certain general princi¬ 
ples in which the Christian Socialists of our 
country are agreed. 

b. They start from the fundamental belief in the 
universal Fatherhood of God and brotherhood 
of man. All men are children of God and are 
therefore not merely individuals, but members 
of a social organism. The social order is de¬ 
rived from God. 

c. The law for the regulation of social life is re¬ 
vealed, at least in part, in the Old Testament. 
Special emphasis is placed on the regulations 
respecting land ownership, the care for the 
poor, the taking of usury or interest, etc. 

d. In the incarnation of Christ He took humanity 
into Himself and entered into all life. Thus He 
furnished the motive power that enabled man 
to fulfill the law in a social sense, the only cor¬ 
rect way to fulfill the law. 

e. Christian Socialism believes that Socialism is 
the necessary economic expression of the Chris¬ 
tian religion. It would therefore permeate the 
Church with its teachings and end the class 

struggle by establishing industrial democracy. 

/ 




142 POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 


Thus it expects to hasten the reign of justice 
and brotherhood; in fact, the coming of the 
Kingdom of God. 

3. Objections to It. 

a. It is objectionable first all, because it is really 
Socialism. In an annual meeting in New York 
it was decided that Socialist-Christian would 
be the better name for its adherents, since they 
do not want a separate Socialism. Socialism is 
Christianity with them, and Christianity, So¬ 
cialism, while in reality the two are irreconcil¬ 
able. 

b. To particularize, it is objectionable since it has 
a wrong conception of Christianity, condemns 
private property and expects the coming of the 
Kingdom of God from the efforts of man. 


IX THE EVILS OF MODERN TRADE 

UNIONS 

1. Their Principles and Spirit. 

a. Modern trade unions are, generally speaking, 
based on Socialistic principles, which causes no 
surprise in view of the fact that they feed pri¬ 
marily on Socialistic literature. 

b. With Socialism they believe in the socializa¬ 
tion of industry, accept the fundamental prin¬ 
ciple that labor only creates the value in the 
product of industry and that therefore the sur¬ 
plus value really belongs to the workingman, 
and foster the idea that the interests of em¬ 
ployers and employees are irreconcilable, an 
idea that encourages class consciousness and 
incites class hatred. 

c. The spirit that prevails in the unions is grossly 
materialistic. The average trade unionist has 
no conception of the superior value of eternal 
and unseen things and has an utter disregard 






POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 143 


for religion and religious institutions. Much 
association with them is bound to have a blight¬ 
ing effect on the Christian. 

2. Their Aim. 

a. The primary aim of the trade unions is to se¬ 
cure the rights to which the laborer is justly 
entitled. This may mean that the union aims 
at establishing social righteousness, but it is 
quite evident that this is not the case. When 
they speak of the rights of the workingman, 
they refer to that which is good and profitable 
for him, irrespective of the rights of others. 
They are not concerned about the rights of the 
employers. 

b. Their subsidiary aim is to obtain a fair day’s 
wage for a fair day’s work. Abstractly con¬ 
sidered this aim is perfectly legitimate. But 
in practice it is the unionist who wants to de¬ 
termine, without consulting the employer who 
is also interested, what is a fair day’s wage and 
what a fair day’s work. Moreover, they know 
no limits to their demands until the socializa¬ 
tion of industry is reached. 

3. Their Methods. 

a. The trade unionists employ various means to 
reach their ends, such as arbitration, collective 
bargaining, the union label, labor legislation, 
the boycott, the closed shop and strikes. 

b. Of these the last three are particularly objec¬ 
tionable, because they aim at coercion and in¬ 
timidation, and proceed on the principle that 
might is right and that every man is his own 
judge. 

c. Moreover, the application of these principles 
infringes on the personal liberty of some that 
are no party in the dispute and imply that one 
man has the right to prevent another from 
working. 



144 POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 


X THE ORGANIZATION OF OUR CHRIS¬ 
TIAN LABORERS 

1. Their Right to Organize. 

a. If laborers in general have the right to organ¬ 
ize, Christian laborers also have this right, for 
we are all subject to the same moral law. At 
present this right is seldom called in question. 

b. In the course of history it was denied, however. 
In the first place capitalists resisted the organi¬ 
zation of the laboringmen because they feared 
corporate influence. And in the second place 
the government of Great Britain did the utmost 
to suppress these organizations, which it re¬ 
garded as the embodiment of the spirit of revo¬ 
lution. 

c. The Church was also accused of colluding with 
the capitalists and playing into their hands. 
But the most that can truly be said is that the 
Church often disapproved of the actually exist¬ 
ing unions and did not always give sufficient 
guidance to the labor movement. 

2. Their Duty to Organize. 

a. This follows from the fact that society is an 
organism in which all parts are interrelated. 
This organic relation must express itself in all 
kinds of organizations. 

b. It is a necessary corollary of our duty to aim 
at the realization of righteousness in social life. 
Since there are organized powers that trample 
on righteousness, it is folly to think that the 
evil can be met and corrected by isolated indi¬ 
viduals. 

c. Finally it can be inferred from the second table 
of the law, more particularly from the sixth and 
eighth commandments. These demand of us, 
among other things, that we be zealous in 
guarding our own and our neighbor’s life and 
property. And in the present condition this 
cannot be done without organization. 






POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 145 


3. Separate Organization of Christian Laborers 
Needed. 

a. Because the present day unions do not reckon 
with the Word of God, which is the standard 
and rule of our life in every sphere. 

b. Because the modern unions take no account of 
the fact that in the organism of society em¬ 
ployers and employees belong together, seeing 
that neither the one nor the other separately, 
but only the two together are producers. The 
unions preach the class struggle. 

c. Because the unions as they exist today impose 
duties on their members that are not consistent 
with our Christian duties, as, for instance, to 
work against those that do not belong to the 
organization. 

d. Because the unions are inimical to that which 
is the first duty of a Christian, viz., to seek 
above all the Kingdom of God. They are con¬ 
cerned about temporal things only and often 
seek merely their own supposed rights. 


XI THE NECESSITY OF REFORM IN 
SABBATH OBSERVATION 

1. The Ideal Sabbath. 

a. The sabbath should be a day of rest. On it 
man must follow the example of God, who 
rested on the seventh day from all his work. 
In the Old Testament all servile labor was 
strictly forbidden. And the Church generally 
took the position that on the sabbath all work, 
except that of necessity and of mercy, should 
cease. That there be one day of rest in every 
seven is not only a religious, but also an eco¬ 
nomic blessing. 

b. In the second place the sabbath should be a day 
of devotion to God. In fact, the rest of the 




146 POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 


sabbath was provided primarily that man 
might engage more particularly in the service 
of the Most High. Instead of spending the day 
in idleness, therefore, or in seeking wordly 
pleasures, we should devote it to special wor¬ 
ship, both in the home and in the churches. It 
is a day on which man is supposed to lift him¬ 
self above the daily routine of life in order to 
soar in higher spiritual regions. 

2. The Neglect of Sabbath Observance. 

a. It is a sad fact that sabbath observance is very 
much on the decline. Religious life today is 
not what it was in the past. Church attendance 
is falling off at an alarming rate. The absence 
of men from the churches is particularly no¬ 
ticeable ; they prefer to meet in their clubs. 

b. The sabbath, God's holy day, is rapidly being 
turned into a weekly holiday. It gradually be¬ 
came the chosen day for an amusement-loving 
and pleasure-seeking public. People go travel¬ 
ing on trains, boats or automobiles; they have 
their Sunday concerts, card parties and dances; 
they visit the theaters and the vaudettes, etc. 

c. Partly in consequence of these Sunday amuse¬ 
ments, but also as a result of other factors, the 
sabbath has partly been turned into a day of 
labor. Trains must be run, newspapers printed, 
plays staged and candy and cigar stores open, 
etc., that the public may not be wanting in the 
pleasures of life. 

3. Efforts at Reform Necessary. 

a. The people should be taught to see the solemn 
significance of the Lord’s day. Their con¬ 
science should be formed by the law of God on 
this point. A great deal of preaching is to 
blame for sabbath desecration. 

b. Church conferences and assemblies should con¬ 
stantly rebuke and protest against the profana- 



POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 147 


tion of the sabbath and should urge the gov¬ 
ernment to make better sabbath laws or to en¬ 
force the existing laws. 

c. Christians should give an example of true sab¬ 
bath consecration and consistently rebuke all 
sabbath desecration in their own circle. 


XII THE DECAY OF THE FAMILY 

1. The Causes of This Decay. 

a. The primary cause is found in the revolution¬ 
ary principles that find application in the mod¬ 
ern family. In the first place the relation be¬ 
tween husband and wife is perverted. Mar¬ 
riage is reduced to a civil contract, divorce is 
made easy and the wife is released from obedi¬ 
ence to her husband. 

b. In the second place the relation between par¬ 
ents and children is disturbed. Instead of look¬ 
ing upon the children as their greatest bless¬ 
ings, many parents regard them as a drag on 
their social pleasures. They do not feel their 
great responsibility in the education of their 
children, nor take a lively interest in their af¬ 
fairs. And the children imbibe a great meas¬ 
ure of independence, and do not learn to obey 
their parents for God’s sake. 

c. And in the third place there has grown up an 
unnatural relation between brothers and sis¬ 
ters. They have little sense of their unity as it 
was established by God Himself. 

2. The Evidences of This Decay. 

a. Home life has lost a great deal of its charm; 
in fact, we often hear the home condemned as 
a relic of former ages, while free love is lauded 
to the skies. 


1 






148 POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 


b. Moreover, we find that men, women and chil¬ 
dren seek their pleasures primarily outside of 
the home, in clubs, reading rooms, theaters, 
dance halls and other places of public amuse¬ 
ment. 

c. Many parents who have no desire to be bur¬ 
dened with the education of their children 
leave this to governesses or send their chil¬ 
dren to boarding schools. 

d. The divorce courts are always busy and in con¬ 
sequence there is an increasing number of 
ruined homes and neglected children. 

e. Children show little respect for their parents 
and have no sense of the duty of obedience. 

3. Dangers of This Decay. 

a. We realize the solemn significance of this de¬ 
cay if we but bear in mind that the family is 
the foundation of our entire social structure, 
of the Church and of the State. 

b. The disintegration begun in the home will ulti¬ 
mately effect the larger life that is built on it; 
the irresponsibility evident in the home will 
have dire consequences in every sphere; the 
prevailing disobedience is apt to terminate in 
revolution. 

4. Remedy for This Decay. 

The one great remedy for this decay is a speedy 
return to the principles of the Word of God as they 
apply to family life. The sanctity of marriage 
must be emphasized and the true relation of hus¬ 
band and wife restored. Parents and children 
must be taught their mutual duties and privileges, 
and the home must be protected against the in¬ 
roads of social life and again become the true nurs¬ 
ery of life in its fulness. 





ETHICS AND RELIGION 







ETHICS AND RELIGION 


151 




ETHICS AND RELIGION 


I SHOULD A CHRISTIAN ATTEND THE 

THEATER? 

1. The Exact Meaning of This Question. 

a. The question is not whether performances in 
which one person impersonates another are 
lawful or not. These may be perfectly legiti¬ 
mate. 

b. Neither is it whether the persons participating 
in some such performance have the moral right 
to don costumes. Even this may be permis¬ 
sible. 

c. It is not even the question whether we cannot 
conceive in the abstract of theatrical perform¬ 
ances that might pass muster. This may be 
quite possible. 

d. The only question is whether a Christian can 
with a good conscience visit the theater as we 
know it, the theater as it is known all over the 
world. 

> 

2. This Question Answered Negatively. 

a. First of all a Christian should not visit the 
theater because the plays that are staged there 
are mostly of such a character that they palli¬ 
ate sin or even present it as a virtue; that 
they make what is sacred to the heart of a 
Christian the object of mockery; that they 
sing the praises of immorality and incite the 
lower passions of man. In general it is only 
the theater that books such performances that 
draws and that is able to maintain itself. And 
if anyone should venture to say that a Chris¬ 
tian can avoid such plays and attend only those 






152 


ETHICS AND RELIGION 


that are good and truly elevating, we would 
urge our second objection to theater-going. 

b. A Christian should desist from attending the 
theater because of the character and life of the 
performers. It is a well know fact that the 
life of the stage is full of temptations and pit- 
falls, and that the men and women that amuse 
the public are generally of a low moral char¬ 
acter and are given to immoral practices. He 
who visits the theater is supporting the actors 
and actresses in their practices, while he knows 
that it is to the detriment of their souls. Even 
if they occasionally perform in classical plays, 
they must supplement this by appearing in 
other rolls in order to earn a living. 

c. And finally a Christian should not visit the 
theater because it is decidedly a place of 
wordly pleasures, where the people of the world 
go to be amused. The company that one meets 
there is not the proper company for the people 
of God. The Bible demands of us that we be 
separate from the world and have no commun¬ 
ion with the unfruitful works of darkness. 


II THE CRAZE FOR AMUSEMENT 

1 The Proper Place of Amusement in Life. 

a. Amusements are of two kinds, viz., popular 
and professional, i. e., amusements that the 
people provide for themselves and those which 
are provided for them by professional players. 
The first are the more universal and spontan¬ 
eous and have the greater value. 

b. Amusement or play has a perfectly legitimate 
place in life. This follows from the very con¬ 
stitution of both animals and men; it is nat¬ 
ural for the one as well as for the other to play. 
Moreover, the Bible speaks of playing once and 
again without a single note of disapproval; yes, 
even with approbation. 




ETHICS AND RELIGION 


153 


c. Amusement serves especially a three-fold pur¬ 
pose. In the first place it promotes physical 
health, in the second place it affords relaxation 
from the daily routine of life and in the third 
place it affords positive pleasure. It is lawful 
and useful only in so far as it serves one of 
these purposes or all of them together. It may 
never become an end in itself, but should al¬ 
ways promote and enrich life in some way. 

2. The Present Inordinate Desire for Amusement 

a. It is an undeniable fact that in our day the con¬ 
dition of things is largely reversed. Amuse¬ 
ment became to a great extent an end in itself, 
and professional amusement assumes a dispro¬ 
portionate place in life. People seek above all 
to be amused. 

b. The subversive character of present day amuse¬ 
ment is perfectly evident from the following 
facts: (1) Many people do not seek to promote 
their health by partaking of the pleasures of 
life, but rather aim at perfecting their physi¬ 
cal condition that they may amuse others. (2) 
An ever increasing number does not seek pleas¬ 
ure in order to enhance its capacity for work, 
but works primarily for the purpose of obtain¬ 
ing pleasure. (3) And in numerous instances 
they indulge in the pleasures of life to such an 
extent that they become unfit for their daily 
task. 

c. In view of these things it is high time that we 
put a check on our amusements. They should 
be reduced to their proper proportions and 
should be so chosen or arranged that they may 

minister to our physical and moral welfare. 

* 





154 


ETHICS AND RELIGION 


III OUR CHRISTIAN YOUTH AND 
AMUSEMENTS 

1. Our Youth Entitled to Amusements. 

a. We do not agree with those who would deny 
our young people all the joys of life. This was 
characteristic of some of the Puritans, who 
even went as far as to require that they should 
wear a characteristic dress and never laugh. 
They would not permit them to sing hymns 
and frowned on the organ and still more on the 
piano and the violin. 

b. Our Christian youth may and must have its 

amusements. (1) The Word of God does not 
condemn, but rather presupposses participa¬ 
tion in the enjoyments of life. Think of the 
feasts among Israel, of the word of the wise 
preacher of Israel (Eccles. 11: 9) and of the 
word of the prophet (Zach. 8:5). (2) More¬ 

over, the desire for amusement is inborn in 
every man, and is particularly strong in young 
people. This is perfectly natural too in view 
of the fact that man is destined to rejoice for¬ 
ever. (3) Our young people need relaxation, 
for a bow long bent at last waxeth weak. Re¬ 
fuse them all enjoyment and they will finally 
turn their backs on Christianity. 

2. The Choice of Amusements. 

a. There are certain general principles that should 
guide our youth in the choice of their amuse¬ 
ments. In the first place they should bear in 
mind that, since they consist of both body and 
soul, they should seek the necessary relaxation 
for both body and mind. They may exercise 
their bodies by running, jumping, playing ball, 
riding on horseback, etc., and relax their minds 
by music and song, by reading romances and 

„ poetry or by playing checkers and chess. 

b. At the same time they must bear in mind that 
they are intellectual and moral beings and 



ETHICS AND RELIGION 


155 


should therefore choose their amusements in¬ 
telligently and never allow these to rob them 
of their liberty. It is incumbent on them to 
guard against all degrading pleasures, such as 
those of drink, the theater, the dance and all 
sorts of immorality. Moreover, they ought 
never to allow any pleasure to dominate or en¬ 
slave them. There is always a danger of this, 
even in the most innocent pleasures, such as 
playing checkers or ball. 

c. And finally our young people must bear in mind 
that the great purpose of their life is to glorify 
God. In some way even their pleasures must 
minister to this great end. These should really 
afford the necessary relaxation, reinvigorate 
them, fit them better for life’s task and 
heighten the enjoyment of life. 


IV THE CHOICE OF ONE’S COMPANIONS 

1. The Necessity of Choosing Companions. 

a. This necessity follows in the first place from 
the fact that man is a sociable being. He feels 
the need of and takes great delight in the 
company of others. The boys and girls that go 
to school and the man on his way to work all 
seek their companions. And the neighborly 
visits of women testify to their sociability. A 
normal person cannot be truly happy without 
the society of others. The recluse and the 
anchoret are abnormal beings. 

b. But it is not only necessary that man have com¬ 
panions; he should and generally does deliber¬ 
ately choose his associates in life. In the ani¬ 
mal world we also notice the workings of the 
social instinct, but we can hardly say that the 
animals choose their companions. Man, how¬ 
ever, is a free, self-determining moral being 
and therefore can and should intelligently 
choose his comrades. 





156 


ETHICS AND RELIGION 


2. The Importance of Making a Careful Choice. 

a. Great care must be exercised in choosing one's 
companions, since we come in contact with all 
kinds of people, cheerful and gloomy, kind- 
hearted and brutal, wise and foolish, persons 
of bad and of good moral habits, pious and 
wicked people. 

b. Those whom we choose will always exercise 
some formative influence on us. We may not 
be conscious of this at the time, yet their in¬ 
fluence will work steady and sure. Their 
thoughts, their words, their conduct and all 
their deeds will make a lasting impression on 
our minds. 

c. This is particularly the case if we are still 
young. Then, as a rule, we have no firm con¬ 
victions and no sufficient will-power to resist 

. the influences that act upon us from without. 
And if they be evil, we are easily led astray. 

3. The Proper Procedure in Choosing Our Friends. 

a. It is necessary, first of all, that we make a 
prayerful choice. Let us never forget the sig¬ 
nificance of prayer in this respect. In connec¬ 
tion with this we should allow ourselves to be 
guided by the Word of God. 

b. In the second place it is incumbent on us to pay 
particular attention to the moral character of 
those whom we contemplate as our friends. 
Moral character is of far more consequence in 
this respect than physical or mental ability. 
Choose above all those that fear the Lord. 

c. Moreover, in the third place our young people 
should never forget to consult their parents in 
the choice of their friends and must always 
heed their advice, since these see things far 
better as a rule than they do. 





ETHICS AND RELIGION 


157 


V THE CHARACTER AND INFLUENCE 

OF GOOD AND BAD LITERATURE 

* 

1. The Character of Good and Bad Literature. 

a. The word “literature” is here used in a limited 
sense to denote collectively those literary pro¬ 
ductions of the human mind that are works of 
art rather than of science, and that are meant 
to be read rather than studied. They may be 
works of poetry or prose, biographies or his¬ 
tories, books of travel, historical romances or 
works of fiction generally, etc. 

b. These literary productions may be divided from 
various points of view. The distinction made in 
our subject is a moral distinction. Good books 
are those that are characterized by a good 
moral tone, that praise virtue and piety, while 
they condemn all evil, and that reveal to us 
something of the ideal beauty of life. Bad 
books, on the other hand, are those that de¬ 
scribe evil in such a manner that it appears 
virtuous, and that mock at religion and moral¬ 
ity. This is done in many of the sentimental 
romances that describe the lowest stages of 
society, that preach free love and represent 
suicide as heroism. 

2. The Influence of Good and Bad Literature. 

a. The books we read naturally exercise a great 
and lasting influence on us. In that respect 
they are like the people with whom we asso¬ 
ciate. We may even call them our best friends, 
since they are always the same, are ever faith¬ 
ful and never grow peevish. It is readily un¬ 
derstood that their influence may be for good 
or for evil. 

b. Good literature has an elevating influence, ' 
where it reveals to us something of the ideal 
beauty of life. • Moreover, it ennobles us by 
bringing us into soul-contact with noble char- 



158 


ETHICS AND RELIGION 


acters. This again is instrumental in leading 
our lives into the right channels. And finally 
the reading of good literature affords us relax¬ 
ation and thereby renews our strength for life’s 
arduous task. 

c. Bad literature, on the other hand, has a de¬ 
generating influence. It draws us down into 
the mire of sin, blunts the moral faculties by 
palliating and even glorify evil, pollutes the 
imagination by immoral representations, and, 
by the unnatural excitement it produces, causes 
weariness and fatigue and often leads to sui¬ 
cide. 


VI THE SUNDAY NEWSPAPER 

1. Historical Rise of the Sunday Newspaper. 

a. The New York Herald was the first daily to 
publish a Sunday edition in 1841, but the Alta 
California soon followed its example. 

b. In 1861 the Boston Herald, the New York 
Times and the New York Tribune began to 
issue Sunday editions. The special occasion 
that gave rise to these Sunday papers was the 
popular desire for the latest war news. Though 
the circulation of the Sunday papers was small 
at first, it rapidly increased and in 1883 had al¬ 
ready reached 60 per cent of the circulation of 
the daily editions. 

c. At present daily papers that do not issue a Sun¬ 
day edition are the exception. The Sunday 
papers are read by all classes of non-church¬ 
going people, by members of the liberal reli¬ 
gious bodies and to a large and increasing ex¬ 
tent also by members of evangelical churches. 

2. Objections to the Sunday Paper. 

a. The first objection to the Sunday paper is that 
its publication is contrary to the law of God, 






ETHICS AND RELIGION 


159 


which demands that man shall rest on the sab¬ 
bath day. It necessarily entails a large amount 
of work on the Lord’s day. 

b. The publication of the Sunday newspaper is, 
in the second place, a sin against the economic 
and physiological law, requiring for man one 
day of rest in every seven. The soundness of 
this law is clearly proved by statistics. 

c. The Sunday newspaper, in the third place, secu¬ 
larizes the Lord’s day. It interferes seriously 
with the mental rest of millions of readers, who 
necessarily think of politics, business and crime 
six days a week and are sorely in need of the 
repose and refreshment that comes by change 
of thought. It keeps the people from church 
and shuts out all thought of spiritual and re¬ 
ligious matters. 

3. Necessary Steps in Combating the Evil. 

a. Insistence on strict enforcement of the sabbath 
law that forbids all servile labor on the Lord’s 
day. 

b. Refusal of the craftsmen to labor on the day 
of the Lord, of the people to buy Sunday pa¬ 
pers and of the business men to advertise in 
them. 

c. The generous support by all Christians of those 
respectable papers that do not publish a Sunday 
edition. 


VII THE SUNDAYSCHOOL 

1. The Origin of the Sundayschool. 

a. The first Sundayschool was opened in 1789 by 
Robert Raikes at Gloucester, England. The 
schools founded by Raikes had primarily a phil- 
anthropical character and aimed at the intel¬ 
lectual and moral elevation of neglected chil¬ 
dren. 

b. The Sundayschool movement received a power- 






160 


ETHICS AND RELIGION 


ful impetus through John Wesley, who found 
that he could utilize the Sundayschool as a 
powerful means for the propagation of Method¬ 
ism. Since that time it became a very impor¬ 
tant instrument in the work of evangelization, 
leading thousands of children that were grow¬ 
ing up without religion to the church. 

c. In the Netherlands and in our own country this 
evangelistic character of the Sundayschool was 
generally recognized at first, but in course of 
time its activities also extended to the children 
of the church. This was the case especially in 
our own country. 

2. The Prevailing Character of the Sundayschool in 

Our Country Today. 

a. The American churches generally substituted 
the Sundayschool for the catechism. In the ab¬ 
sence of both catechism classes and Christian 
schools the Sundayschool became the great edu¬ 
cational institution of the church. It aims at 
giving the youth of the churches instruction 
in the fundamentals of religion. 

b. This religious instructiQn in the Sundayscnool 
is primarily historical. At first some of the 
churches that realized the importance of doc¬ 
trinal instruction, insisted on it that the cate¬ 
chism should also be taught in the Sunday- 
school. Today, however, the great majority of 
churches are averse to doctrinal teaching. 

c. In recent years there is an increasing tendency 
to change the Sundayschool more and more into 
a real school. A graded system is introduced, 
teachers are trained, various branches of study 
are taught and not only children, but adults as 
well, receive instruction. Many regard the 
Sundayschool as more important than the 
church. 




ETHICS AND RELIGION 


161 


3. The Proper Place of the Sundayschool. 

a. The Sundayschool should always primarily be 
a means for evangelistic work. The churches 
should place more emphasis on the work of 
evangelization, and in doing this can make a 
very profitable use cf the Sundayschool. 

b. Where the Sundayschool also labors with the 
children of the church, great care should be 
taken that it does not replace the catechism. 
Neither should it attempt to take the place of 
the Christian school, which is simply impos¬ 
sible. It may and should supplement the re¬ 
ligious instruction of the home. 


VIII THE WORK OF MISSIONS 
1. Missionary Motives. 

a. The true missionary must first conquer sin in 
his own life before he can successfully combat 
it in the lives of others. The missionary mo¬ 
tives are naturally derived from the Word of 
God and from the new life that is born within 
the hearts of the missionaries, in connection 
with the condition of those, who are the objects 
of missionary efforts. 

b. In the Word of God we find the great commis¬ 
sion that Christ gave His disciples to preach 
the Gospel to all nations (Matt. 28: 19). The 
missionary goes out first of all because it is the 
command of his King. 

c. But the new life of the missionary operates in 
various ways also as a motive: (1) The grace 
that fills his heart is of a communicative char¬ 
acter. (2) The holiness of his new life reacts 
strongly against sin in the world and naturally 
seeks to create a holy atmosphere in which it 
can flourish. (3) This new life feels that it is 
responsible also for sin in the lives of others, 
and therefore impels one to conquer sin in the 
world of unbelief. (4) That new life, as it ex- 




162 


ETHICS AND RELIGION 


ists in the lives of individuals, is conscious of 
the fact that it forms but an insignificant part 
of the body of Christ, and necessarily seeks to 
complete itself. 

2. The Great Importance of Missionary Work. 

a. This work is very important, first of all, for 
Christ, for in it He sees the good pleasure of 
Jehovah prosper in His hand. It is the ingath¬ 
ering of the fruits of His labors, the increase of 
His subjects and the completion of His body. 

b. It is very significant too for the Church: it 
promotes her growth, leads her on to complete¬ 
ness and strengthens her by increasing the 

- number of the soldiers of the cross. 

c. It is of the utmost importance for the nations 
that are won for Christ. New life is born 
within them; new light kindled in their hearts. 
Schools are opened for the education of their 
children, their moral life is raised to a higher 
leven and their religion is purified. 

3. The Factors on Which Missionary Victory Depends. 

a. Negatively we can say that spiritual victory 
does not depend on the sword or on persecu¬ 
tion. Neither does it, in the last analysis, de¬ 
pend on any efforts of man, such as great ora¬ 
tory, educational activities or measures of so¬ 
cial reform. 

b. Postively it does depend, first of all, on the 
grace of God, operating in the hearts of the 
missionaries, of those that support the work 
of missions and of those that are the objects 
of missionary efforts. And in the second place 
on the preaching of the Gospel of Jesus Christ 
in its purity. Some of the above named agen- ,* 
cies may, of course, aid in the work. 



ETHICS AND RELIGION 


163 


IX THE WORK OF CHRISTIAN CHARITY 

1. The Character of Christian Charity. 

a. Christian charity is, as the name indicates, a 
specifically Christian virtue, the fruit of spe¬ 
cial grace. It is Christian love extended to 
those that are in misery, a love that reveals 
itself in a voluntary and unselfish devotion to 
those that are subject to the ills of life, par¬ 
ticularly, when they are in straitened circum¬ 
stances. 

b. It differs decidedly from the so-called “liberal¬ 
ity” of the Romans. The latter generally 
passed by the real objects of charity; it was 
extended to citizens and not to slaves, however 
great their misery might be. And the aim of 
the person that exercised this liberality was to 
promote his own honor. The Christian, how¬ 
ever, in his work of charity, seeks those that 
are in misery,' of whatever rank they may be, 
and aims at promoting the glory of God. 

c. Christian charity differs even from the charity 
that was exercised by Israel under the Old 
Testament. This was limited almost exclu¬ 
sively to the poor of their own nation. More¬ 
over, it was carefully regulated by an external 
law. Christian charity, on the other hand, is 
inspired and regulated by an internal principle 
and is universal. 

2. The Motives for Christian Charity. 

a. The primary motive is found in the fact that 
the Word of God calls upon us to show forth 
the image of God also in this respect. “Be ye 
merciful, even as your Father is merciful (Luke 
6: 36). This is a very high ideal. 

b. In the second place the Christian love that fills 
our hearts prompts us to exercise charity. This 
charity will reveal itself in all its tenderness 
and compassion where misery is greatest, as, 





164 


ETHICS AND RELIGION 


for instance, during a pestilence, or a famine, 
or on the battlefield. 

c. Moreover, it is necessary for our own spiritual 
development that we exercise charity. This 
is not selfishness, but merely a part of the law 
of our spiritual existence. If we do not exer¬ 
cise charity, the priest in us will remain hidden 
in obscurity. 

3. Opportunities for Exercising Christian Charity. 

a. There is always abundant opportunity for ex¬ 
ercising this virtue. We can do it through the 
deacons of our churches or, more directly, 
wherever we come in contact with misery. 

b. We have special occasion for exercising Chris¬ 
tian charity, where we have our own Psycho¬ 
pathic Hospitals at Cutlerville and near Pater¬ 
son. The demented are certainly in a very spe¬ 
cial sense objects of charity. 

c. Another opportunity is offered us in Denver, 
where the victims of the white plague in Be- 
thesda Sanatorium have a great claim on our 
compassion. 


X THE CHARACTER AND AIM OF OUR 
YOUNG MEN’S SOCIETIES 

1. The Character of Our Young Men’s Societies. 

a. When the Young Men’s Societies, as we know 
them, were first organized in the Netherlands, 
they were regarded primarily as fit instru¬ 
ments for the work of evangelization. Religion 
was at a low ebb in the churches, and the so¬ 
cieties were called into existence for the pro¬ 
motion of spiritual life. 

b. Afterward, under pietistic influences, these so¬ 
cieties were regarded as social circles, in which 
young men related their spiritual experiences 
and thus promoted true piety among them¬ 
selves. 




ETHICS AND RELIGION 


165 


c. Both of these conceptions were found objec¬ 
tionable in course of time: the first, because 
young men, still in the formative period of their 
lives, are not yet ready for active work in the 
Kingdom of God, and the second, because our 
young people are not so ripe in Christian exper¬ 
iences that they can speak of these from week 
to week. The societies are now generally re¬ 
garded as institutions that help the home to 
form our young people for life. 

2. The Specific Purpose of Our Young Men’s Societies. 

a. These societies must bear in mind that their 
members are in that period of life in which 
they grow into independence, and should there¬ 
fore begin to take an active part in their own 
education for life. The work in the societies 
should teach them self-reliance and indepen¬ 
dent action. 

b. Moreover, the societies should furnish our 
young men with a working knowledge of the 
principles that ought to govern their lives. 
They must not, as they grow up, be as vessels 
without a rudder on the tide of life, but should 
be able to choose their own deliberate course 
amidst all the distracting influences around 
them. 

c. In doing this work the societies must bear in 
mind that the young man, when he comes to 
maturity, will have to move about in different 
spheres. In distinction from the young woman, 
he will find his task especially in sociai and in¬ 
dustrial life, in the State and in the Church. 
And every sphere presents its own problems, 
which he must be ready to meet. 

3. The Method to Be Pursued by the Societies. 

a. Every society should, of course, devote a great 
deal of time to the study of the Word of God. 
It contains rich lessons for life in general. A 



166 


ETHICS AND RELIGION 


wise choice of certain sections will make the 
work more effective. 

b. But since the young man will soon take an in¬ 
dependent place in society, in the State and in 
the Church, our Young Men's Societies should 
also devote themselves to the study of Amer¬ 
ican history, supplemented perhaps by a little 
civics and to the study of the various social 
problems and of our Confession of Faith. 


















SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 






X 

SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 169 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


I RESOLVED, THAT THE CRUSADES WERE 
PRODUCTIVE OF MORE GOOD THAN EVIL. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. The crusades had a stimulating effect on the 
religious spirit of Christian Europe. The clergy- 
left their churches and addressed the multi¬ 
tudes in the fields and on the public squares. 

b. They brought the crusaders in contact with two 
civilizations, richer and more advanced than 
their own, viz., the Greek and the Saracenic, 
and thus brought about beneficent changes. 

c. They gave a strong impetus to commerce be¬ 
tween the East and the West, so that the towns 
of Europe waxed great and powerful. Mari¬ 
time commerce flourished as never before. 

2. Negative: 

a. The crusades greatly increased the power of 
the Roman Catholic church and of the papacy. 
The pope furnished the money and thereby 
gained the ascendency even over temporal 
princes. 

b. They were a powerful incentive to the spirit of 
intolerance. Persecution of non-believing Mo¬ 
hammedans, in course of time led to the perse¬ 
cution of heretics, such as the Albigenses. 

c. The system of absolution received a mighty im¬ 
petus. Originally those who followed the cross 
from purely religious motives were regarded 
immune. Before long, however, money con¬ 
tributed towards an expedition merited partial 
remission of sins. 





170 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


II RESOLVED, THAT THE BANISHMENT OF 
ROGER WILLIAMS WAS JUSTIFIABLE. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. While the colonies of the New England Puri¬ 
tans formed a theocracy, Roger Williams de¬ 
clared that a church merged with a state was 
impossible and demanded a complete separation 
of the two. 

b. He maintained that the civil magistrate has no 
right to interfere in church affairs, not even to 
stop a church from apostacy and heresy, and 
that his power extends only to the bodies, the 
goods and the outward estate of men. 

c. He claimed equal rights for believers and unbe¬ 
lievers in the state and opposed the citizen’s 
oath that was required by the magistrate. All 
these things were subversive of the theocracy. 

2. Negative: 

a. Roger Williams was in advance of his own time. 
His theory of the separation of Church and 
State was in the main correct and is justified 
by history. 

b. The colonists denied him the right which they 
claimed for themselves, viz., the right to serve 
God according to the dictates of his own con¬ 
science. Williams stood for the fullest religious 
toleration. 

c. In an unwarranted manner the Massachusetts’ 
churches brought such pressure to bear on the 
Salem church that a majority consented to the 
removal of Williams, though he was as minister 
in good standing with them. 




SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


171 


III RESOLVED, THAT EVIL RATHER THAN 
GOOD PREPONDERATED IN THE FRENCH 
REVOLUTION. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. The French Revolution was the incarnation of 
the principle of unbelief. It was a bold attempt 
to dethrone God and to place the goddess of 
reason upon the throne. 

b. In fact, it was the negation of all authority- 
delegated by God to man and the elevation of 
man to the place of supreme authority. 

c. It found expression in a violence that respected 
neither social position, age nor sex. Wholesale 
murder was the order of the day. 

2. Negative: 

a. The French Revolution was a natural reaction 
against an absolutism that had no regard what¬ 
ever for the rights of man, but trampled them 
under foot. 

b. It meant the abolishment of a feudalism that 
had practically kept the masses enslaved, the 
feudal lords were deposed and their exactions 
and oppressions ended. 

c. Moreover, it gave rise to the modern conception 
of the State, in which equal rights are accorded 
to all citizens of whatever rank they may be. 

d. Finally it also gave a mighty impetus to the 
education of the masses that had been greatly 
neglected, not only by the parents, but also by 
the Church and by the State, 


IV RESOLVED, THAT CHURCH PROPERTY 
SHOULD BE FREE FROM TAXATION. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. The Church is a most important asset to the 
State. It is the greatest agency to raise the 






172 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


moral life of a nation to a high level and is 
therefore productive of good citizenship. 

b. It saves the State a great deal of expense. If all 
other things are equal, an increase in the num¬ 
ber of churches will mean a decrease in the 
number of penal institutions. Moreover, the 
charitable and educational agencies of the 
Church reduce the financial burdens of the 
State. 

2. Negative: 

a. The principle of equal taxation demands that 
church property as well as other property be 
taxed. The members of the churches are quite 
able to pay such taxes. 

b. Exemption of church property naturally raises 
the general taxes proportionately. This results 
in taxing persons for churches who do not be¬ 
lieve in religion. Then too, the members of 
church that have but little property are paying 
considerable taxes for those churches that pos¬ 
sess a great deal of real estate. 


V RESOLVED, THAT THE CHIEF PURPOSE 
OF A PRISON SHOULD BE TO PUNISH, 
NOT TO REFORM. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. The Word of God demands that justice shall be 
maintained in the life of a nation. If anyone 
tramples on divine right, as embodied in social 
or civil relations or institutions, the principle 
of righteousness demands that he be punished 
for it. 

b. The welfare of society demands that a trans¬ 
gressor be made to feel that his confinement 
within prison walls is a punishment for his 
crime. Justice is the foundation of the whole 
social structure. 


t 




SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


173 


c. It is also the best for the criminal that the sense 
of justice be strengthened in his heart. Then 
only will he become a good citizen. 

2. Negative: 

a. In New Testament times the emphasis should 
not be placed on justice, but on mercy. This is 
in harmony with the spirit of Christ, who Him¬ 
self set aside the retaliation measures of the 
Jews. 

b. Society is protected from the offenders just as 
effectively when they are confined in institu¬ 
tions that aim at reformation, as when they are 
incarcerated in prisons that emphasize the idea 
of punishment. 

c. Statistics prove that under the old penal sys¬ 
tem a much larger per cent of criminals re¬ 
turned to their evil ways than is the case under 
the new reformatory system. 


VI RESOLVED THAT COMPULSORY VACCINA¬ 
TION IS DESIRABLE. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. Statistics clearly prove that vaccination is a 
real preventive for the disease of smallpox. 
Make it a point to produce some such statistics. 

b. Everybody is in duty bound to preserve his life 
and to ward off all suffering as much as pos¬ 
sible. It would be criminal not to do this. An 
ounce of prevention is better than a pound of 
cure. 

c. Moreover, we must have due regard for the life 
of others. In family and social life we con¬ 
stantly come in contact with others. If we con¬ 
tract smallpox, others are thereby endangered. 




174 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


2. Negative: ' 

a. It is by no means true that vaccination is an 
absolute preventive for smallpox. Vaccinated 
persons often contract the disease. Hence the 
insistence on repeated vaccination. 

b. Compulsory vaccination is an infringement on 
our personal liberty. The State assumes the 
right to tyrannize over our bodies. This is ex¬ 
tremely arbitrary and very odious. Only one 
more step and it will also try to dominate our 
soul-life. 

c. It is altogether unnatural to inject poisonous 
matter into a perfectly healthy body. More¬ 
over, the facts prove that this sometimes ter¬ 
minates fatally. 


VII RESOLVED, THAT THE JURY SYSTEM 
OUGHT TO BE ABOLISHED. 

\ 

1. Affirmative: 

a. While jurors ought to be of approved integrity, 
sound judgment and well informed, this is sel¬ 
dom the case, because the better classes of citi¬ 
zens do not feel attracted to a place on the jury, 
and can and do claim exemption. As a rule, 
only those are willing to serve for whom the 
pay has some attraction. 

b. The jury system often leads to a gross miscar¬ 
riage of.justice. The jurors often allow them¬ 
selves to be swayed by the sentiment of their 
community, even though it goes counter to the 
law. They often refused to convict a woman 
of murder, though the evidence was convinc¬ 
ing. And if they bring a verdict favorable to a 
defendant in a criminal trial, the judge cannot 
annul it. 

c. The requirement of unanimity in all cases often 
leads to compromise under stress of circum- 






SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


175 


stances and therefore to a verdict that does not 
even satisfy the jurors. 

2. Negative: 

a. In history the right of trial by a jury of his 
peers has always been regarded as one of the 
fundamental rights of a freeman. And today 
even prominent jurists attempt to extend the 
rights of a jury also to civil cases. 

b. It is highly desirable that there be constant 
contact between the professional jurists, and 
the judicial instinct that is operative in the cir¬ 
cles of the people in general, since this will pro¬ 
mote a correct understanding of the cases 
brought up. 

c. It is beneficial for a nation that its citizenry 
have some share in the judicial function of the 
state. This will quicken the people’s sense of 
justice and check the possible one-sidedness of 
a judge. 


VIII RESOLVED, THAT LIBERAL LAWS OF 
DIVORCE ARE DESIRABLE. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. Liberal laws of divorce are absolutely neces¬ 
sary in view of the fact that there are so many 
unhappy marriages. As long as marriage is 
not guarded closer than at present, we cannot 
do without lax divorce laws. 

b. If we do not give those who, though wedded, 
ceased to love each other, a chance to separate 
legally, we encourage them in seeking illegiti¬ 
mate connection with others. 

c. Moreover, the agitation for liberal laws of di¬ 
vorce is but a part of the general movement 
for social liberation that gained strength and 
volume ever since the Reformation. 





176 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


2. Negative: 

a. According to the Bible the only legitimate 
ground for divorce is adultery. State laws 
should be based on this principle also, and in 
that way guard the sanctity of marriage. 

b. Lax divorce laws encourage divorce, while 
strict laws will strengthen the conviction of 
married people that they are joined together 
for life, and will have a salutary effect on their 
mutual relations. 

c. Divorce is an incipient disturbance of the social 
structure. It ruins families, dethrones women 
from their seat of spiritual authority and sends 
children out into the cold world. 


IX RESOLVED, THAT A PROTECTIVE POLICY 
IS BETTER THAN FREE TRADE. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. Protection enables a country to be an indepen¬ 
dent, self-sustaining unit, able to produce 
everything that it consumes. It appeals to the 
national feeling in man that sets his own coun¬ 
try above every other. 

b. A protective tariff prevents foreign competi¬ 
tion. Since wages are higher in our country 
than abroad, foreign products could be sold 
cheaper here than home products, if no pro¬ 
tective duty were levied. 

c. Since the conditions of labor in our country are 
quite different from those abroad, infant indus¬ 
tries need protection. Some manufactures 
would cease if there were no protective tariff, 
and this would fall heavily on the laboring 
class. 

2. Negative: 

a. Free trade is based on the sound principle of 
division of labor, of which foreign exchange is 


/ 




SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


177 


only an extension. If the production of various 
articles is divided among the nations, they can 
be made cheaper than when a nation tries to 
make all it consumes. 

b. Free trade is desirable, because it gives us the 
benefit of the relative advantage of other na¬ 
tions in producing certain things, while it al¬ 
lows other nations to share in the relative ad¬ 
vantage we have in making other goods. 

c. Free trade is preferable to a protective policy 
because the latter leads to a struggle between 
class and class and to an unnatural scramble 
for legal advantages in production. Every 
manufacturer wants the best protection for his 
interests. Protection is in the interest of capi¬ 
tal rather than in that of labor. 


X RESOLVED, THAT WOMAN SHOULD HAVE , 
THE BALLOT. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. Woman suffrage is based first of all on the nat¬ 
ural right of women. They have as clear a 
title to the ballot as men have. As it is, they 
are governed without their consent. 

b. They need the ballot, for (1) they are not ade¬ 
quately protected as long as the laws are made 
by men only, and (2) their honor is at stake 
where they are classed with idiots and crim¬ 
inals. 

c. The entrance of women in the sphere of poli¬ 
tics would be a great boon to national life. Many 
measures of reform, now retarded by men, 
would receive a great impetus. Political life 
would be renovated. In many states women 
have already shown their hand. 

2 Negative: 

a. Woman suffrage is contrary to the place as- 






178 


SUBJECTS fOR DEBATES 


, signed to woman in the Bible and to the fact 
that she is clearly specially adapted to life in 
the home. 

b. Women are physically disqualified from par¬ 
ticipation in government labor, such as work in 
the fire department, on the police force, etc. 

c. If women enter on the duties of public life, they 
will naturally neglect those of the home pro¬ 
portionately. Their families will suffer for it. 

d. Moreover, woman suffrage is apt to bring di¬ 
vision between husband and wife, virtually de¬ 
stroying the social unit, viz., the family. 


XI RESOLVED, THAT THE LEGAL PROHIBI¬ 
TION OF THE MANUFACTURE AND SALE 
OF INTOXICATING LIQUORS IS RIGHT. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. The Bible contains several warnings against 
the use of strong drink because of its intoxicat¬ 
ing character. The use of fermented wine and 
of strong drink is condemned. 

b. Medical science teaches us that alcoholic bev¬ 
erages are poisonous and therefore physically 
destructive. Moreover, they contaminate the 
soul, degrade man morally and make him unfit 
for the service of God. 

c. The use of intoxicating liquor ruins homes, 
makes women and children dependents on pub¬ 
lic charity, fills prisons and is decidedly against 
the best business interests of the country. 

2. Negative: 

a. The Bible regards even intoxicating drinks as 
good gifts of God. Wine serves the purpose of 
rejoicing the heart. Scriptural warnings are 
not directed against the use, but against the 
abuse of liquor. 




SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


179 


b. There are many who gratefully use alcoholic 
beverages without abusing them. Absolute 
prohibition suppresses one of the good gifts of 
God and infringes on the personal liberty of 
those that make a legitimate use of them. 

c. The remedy should always be adapted to the 
disease. The evils attending the abuse of in¬ 
toxicating liquor can be eliminated by a care¬ 
ful regulation of their sale. 


XII RESOLVED, THAT THE STATE HAS THE 
RIGHT TO COMPEL ALL CHILDREN TO 
ATTEND THE PUBLIC SCHOOL. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. The State is vitally interested in the education 
of its citizens. This is particularly true in the 
case of a democracy. Illiteracy spells doom for 
a nation in these times of enlightenment. 

b. Instruction given in sectarian schools is only 
narrowly effective. It is education for the 
Church rather than for the State, and does not 
meet the demands of life in a broad way. 

c. Moreover, it is only education in the public 
school that truly unifies the people and creates 
a national spirit. Education in sectarian 
schools, on the other hand,, divides the people 
and is a drag on patriotism. 

2. Negative: 

a. The State is not the proper educator of the 
children. The parents are responsible for the 
education of their children, and only in case 
they are negligent has the State the right to 
show its hand. 

b. The main object of education is not to make 
good citizens, but to perfect the man of God, 
that he may be perfectly furnished unto all 
good work. State education is too narrow for 
this broad purpose. 






180 SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES _ 

c. It is impossible for the State to educate the 
children in harmony with the religious convic¬ 
tions of all the parents. To compel parents to 
send their children to schools that go contrary 
to their religion is against Art. I of the Amend¬ 
ments to the Constitution of the United States. 


XIII RESOLVED, THAT CO-EDUCATION OF THE 
SEXES IN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF 
LEARNING IS DESIRABLE. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. There is no radical difference between the mas- 

1 culine and the feminine intellect. The one is 

human as well as the other; both have equal 
characteristics, comprehensiveness and adapta¬ 
tion. 

b. Woman is destined to be, intellectually as well 
as otherwise, the companion of man, and there¬ 
fore it is highly desirable that she share his 
studies. It will promote mutual understand¬ 
ing. 

c. The proper intercourse of the sexes is for their 
mutual benefit. In their tastes, ideals and ac¬ 
complishments they complement each other 
and enrich each other’s life. 

2. Negative: 

a. The minds of men and women,'though both 
human, are nevertheless quite different in their 
operations. Men excel in reasoning power and 
women are superior in intuitive insight. As a 
result some of the higher studies cannot be fol¬ 
lowed with equal success by both sexes. 

b. Men and women must prepare for different 
tasks in life; hence it is most desirable that 
they be educated along different lines. 


\ 





SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


181 


c. Since the place of woman is in the home, her 
entrance on a course of higher education is of 
questionable value. It often results in a post¬ 
ponement of marriage or in the substitution of 
of another ideal. 

d. The general daily intercourse of the sexes, 
when they are of marriageable age, is of doubt¬ 
ful propriety. 


XIV RESOLVED, THAT READING OF NOVELS 
SHOULD BE DISCOURAGED. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. Novels do not, as a rule, contain a sound, 
healthy view of life, a view that corresponds 
with reality, and as a result raise expectations 
that are doomed to bitter disappointment. 

b. The reading of novels, like the use of liquor, 
produces unnatural excitement, after which a 
reaction follows, resulting in general lassitude. 
Many a person was thereby brought to the 
verge of dispair. 

c. Novel-reading robs a person of a great deal of 
time that might be spent to much better ad¬ 
vantage. It often makes him unfit for the 
serious tasks of life. 

d. Many novels foster a spirit that is inimical to 
Christianity. They are all the more dangerous 
because they often do this in a very subtle way. 

2. Negative: 

a. We must discriminate between different kinds 
of novels. Many of them picture life as it really 
is, others represent it ideally and thereby lead 
us up to a higher view of life. 

b. The reading of a good novel affords healthy 
relaxation to the mind. For students it is as 
refreshing as a bath. Instead of making them 
unfit for work, it renews their strength. 





SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


182 


c. Many novels give us an insight into the life of 
past ages that could not be conveyed in any 
other way. They enable us to realize conditions 
and customs of the distant past. 

d. In many cases too the religious and moral 
views of life which they contain are truly up¬ 
lifting. 


XV RESOLVED, THAT THE MODERN TRADE 
UNIONS ARE HIGHLY DESIRABLE. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. The trade unions are absolutely necessary for 
the protection of the individual employee. Over 
against organized capital labor must place its 
organization. Then only is collective bargain¬ 
ing, arbitration and the strike possible. 

b. Those unions clearly proved their great value 
in the industrial struggle. Through their ef¬ 
forts (1) wages were gradually increased, (2) 
the hours of labor were decreased, (3) the em¬ 
ployment of women and children was reduced, 
(4) better protection was obtained for the 
workingmen and (5) the intellectual life of the 
laborers was raised to a higher level. 

2. Negative: 

a. The modern trade unions are based on the 
theory that the interests of capital and labor 
are inimical. They are embued with a Social¬ 
istic spirit and preach class hatred. 

b. They are extremely one-sided in their aims. 
Instead of seeking the establishment of right¬ 
eous in social life they aim only at securing the 
supposed rights of the workingmen, without 
out any consideration for the rights of others. 

c. In their efforts they do not always employ legi¬ 
timate means. They often break contracts, 
prohibit other laborers from working, use 
coercive measures, etc. 





183 


v 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


XVI RESOLVED, THAT STRIKES ARE JUSTI¬ 
FIABLE. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. The strike is merely a part of the industrial 
warfare of the present. If war is justifiable 
then a strike is also, though it be only as a last 
resort. 

b. The justice of the strike is based on the in¬ 
disputable right of the laborer to lay down his 
work if he sees fit. And if an individual has 
this right than laborers collectively have also. 

c. The defense of the strike does not imply a jus¬ 
tification of the violence that often accom¬ 
panies a strike. Such violence is discouraged 
by the unions because it helps the cause of cap¬ 
ital rather than that of labor. 

2. Negative: 

a. The strike must not be confused with the walk¬ 
out. In a strike the laborer not merely stops 
work, but at the same time maintains his right 
to the work that he lays down. As a rule, this 
is indefensible. 

* 

b. Striking generally implies the breaking of a 
contract. To lay down work after one’s con¬ 
tract expires is not a strike. And the breaking 
of a contract is never justifiable. If the em¬ 
ployer does not live up to his part of the con¬ 
tract, there are legal means of redress. 

c. The strike almost invariably carries with it a 
certain amount of coercion and violence. The 
striker maintains his right to employment, and 
therefore by picketing and, if necessary, by 
violence keeps others away from the work. This 
cannot be justified. 





184 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


XVII RESOLVED, THAT THE INTRODUCTION 
OF THE MACHINE WAS BENEFICIAL FOR 
THE LABORING CLASS. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. In a general way it may be said that the ma¬ 
chine decreases the hours of labor and thus 
gives the laborer more leisure time. 

b. The machine greatly increased the output and 
cheapened the products of labor. The result 
is that wage-earners now own many commodi¬ 
ties that the wealthy only could have a century 
ago. The standard of life was raised mate¬ 
rially. 

c. The introduction of the machine also raised a 
large number of laborers to a higher level. The 
machine superceded muscles, but not brains, 
and consequently drove many to employments 
that demanded greater intellectual ability and 
commanded higher pay. 

d. Then too, machinery improves labor by taking 
it out of rude huts and tenements into factories 
that are comparatively hygienic. 

2. Negative: 

a. The introduction of the machine tended to sep¬ 
arate the classes. Under the old system an ap¬ 
prentice looked forward to a journeyman’s po¬ 
sition, and having attained this he might hope 
to set up a shop for himself. Under the new 
system it is quite different. 

b. Formerly the laborer possessed his own tools 
and this gave him a certain measure of inde¬ 
pendence. The machine is a complicated tool 
not owned by the workingman, but by his em¬ 
ployer, on whom the former is therefore ut¬ 
terly dependent. 

c. By making labor less dependent on muscles the 
machine gave rise to woman and child labor in 




SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


185 


unhealthy factories, surrounded by many temp¬ 
tations to social vices. 

d. It also led to the factory system that daily 
takes a man away from his family and deprives 
him of the opportunity to educate his children. 


XVIII RESOLVED, THAT FOR YOUNG PEOPLE 
LIFE IN THE COUNTRY IS MORALLY 
MORE WHOLESOME THAN LIFE IN THE 
CITY. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. Life in the country brings them in close touch 
with nature that reveals the hand of God in 
many ways and thus leads them up to nature’s 
God. 

b. It is comparatively free from the many tempta¬ 
tions of city life. There are no saloons, no 
brothels, no vaudettes, no theaters, no dance 
halls, etc. 

c. Country life is far more steady and calm, more 
free from anxiety and strain than city life and 
thus allows more time for introspection, pro¬ 
moting depth of character and profundity of 
thought. 

2. Negative: 

a. The city brings the young people in contact 
with a higher civilization than the country and 
therefore has a refining influence on their char¬ 
acter. 

b. The city offers far greater opportunities for de¬ 
velopment along every line than the country 
does; opportunities not only for intellectual, but 
also for moral development. If the tempta¬ 
tions of the city are many, the safeguards are 
also numerous. , 





186 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


c. The fact that the young people in the city come 
in contact with many temptations will naturally 
require greater resistance on their part and 
will in the end make for greater stability of 
character. 


XIX RESOLVED, THAT SEPARATE YOUNG 
MEN’S AND YOUNG WOMEN’S SOCIETIES 
ARE BETTER THAN YOUNG PEOPLE’S 
SOCIETIES. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. There is a vast difference between the sexes, 
not only physically but also mentally. Their 
minds operate in different ways. If the two are 
brought together in a society, the young ladies 
will most likely refrain from the discussions, 
or will argue in a manner that is hardly under¬ 
stood and appreciated by the young men. This 
naturally leads to a great deal of unnecessary 
wrangling. 

b. Our societies should aim at preparing their 
members for life’s task, which is not the same 
for the two sexes. Hence their preparation 
ought to be quite different. 

c. Bringing the sexes together in the societies is 
apt to detract from the seriousness of purpose 
in the work of the society. 

2. Negative: 

a. If young men and young women are destined 
to be each other’s companions in life, they will 
to a great extent have to grapple with the same 
problems. And daily life clearly shows that 
they are quite able to appreciate each other’s 
arguments. They complement each other. 

b. It will prove to be of material benefit to both 
sexes that they are brought together in socie- 





I 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 187 


ties.- If the stronger sex is more frank and 
forceful and decided, the weaker is more re¬ 
fined and shrewd and diplomatic. They will 
influence each other. 

c. Experience teaches that young people’s socie¬ 
ties enjoy far greater popularity than the so¬ 
cieties in which but one sex is represented. 


XX RESOLVED, THAT THE UNION OF ALL 
CHURCHES IS DESIRABLE AND PRAC¬ 
TICABLE. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. Such a union is highly desirable in view of the 
fact that the Church is essentially a unity. This 
unity should express itself in its outward ap¬ 
pearance in the world. The existing division 
is a practical negation of it. 

b. This union is desirable also because in unity 
there is strength. The divided Church of the 
present day is not able to accomplish what she 
could do if she presented a united front. 

c. The union of all churches is also practicable if 
the various denominations are only willing to 
overlook their petty differences and emphasize 
the great essentials on which they agree. 

2. Negative: 

a. History plainly teaches us that a real church 
union is impossible from a practical point of 
view. There have been divisions in the Church 
from the very dawn of Christianity. Every 
union attempted was forced and superficial and 
failed miserably. 

b. Though the divisions in the Church are to a 
great extent the result of sin, we should not 
forget that they are not altogether evil. The 
Church, like every organism in nature, reveals 
itself in a variety of forms. God loves diversity 
in unity. 





188 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


c. Such a union as is practicable would not be de¬ 
sirable. It would require that all the differences 
in doctrine, polity and worship should be toned 
down to such a degree that the most character¬ 
istic elements of Christianity would disappear. 


XXI RESOLVED, THAT RELIGIOUS REVIVALS 
PROMOTE THE GROWTH AND PROSPER¬ 
ITY OF THE CHURCH. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. A revival, in the generally accepted sense of the 
word, is an extraordinary religious effort to 
produce extraordinary results. It fixes the at¬ 
tention anew on the oft forgotten central 
truths of the Gospel and is thus very important 
for the Church. 

b. When the religious life of a community runs 
low and becomes stagnant, a revival raises it 
to a higher level, fills the hearts of believers 
with enthusiasm and inspires them to greater 
activity. 

c. A revival generally leads many unbelievers to 
a knowledge of the truth and to the Church, 
thus swelling the ranks of the army of Jesus 
Christ. 

2. Negative: 

a. Revivals, as we know them, are usually very 
superficial movements that have no sound basis. 
They do not emphasize the utter depravity of 
man and proceed on the doctrine of universal 
grace and that of the perfectibility of man. 

b. They are spasmodic efforts in which, by arti¬ 
ficial methods, the tide of feeling is made to 
run high. When they are past, the inevitable 
reaction sets in and the state of the Church is 
often worse than it was before. A feeling of 
lassitude creeps over the ranks. 





SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


189 


c. Statistics prove that the lasting results of a 
revival, as seen in new converts, is not com¬ 
mensurate with the required expenditure of 
money and energy. Most of the converts re¬ 
turn to their former mode of life. 


XXII RESOLVED, THAT A CHRISTIAN MAY 
AND MUST TAKE AN ACTIVE PART IN 
WAR WHEN CALLED UPON. 

1. Affirmative : 

a. Through the influence of sin war is, under cer¬ 
tain circumstances, a necessity. The sword 
was entrusted to the government and must be 
wielded by it in defense of justice. War is not 
forbidden, but in several instances commanded 
in the Bible. 

b. The Christian is a citizen of the State, enjoy¬ 
ing the privileges of citizenship and therefore 
also obliged to shoulder its duties. When the 
call to arms comes, he is in duty bound to obey 
the government. If he did not, he would be a 
traitor to his country. 

c. If a Christian refuses to take part in a war that 
is waged in the interest of justice, he not only 
helps the enemies of his country, but, in fact, 
upholds injustice while he should minister to 
righteousness. 

2. Negative: 

a. The Bible commands love and forbids hatred, 
and especially murder. Now war is simply 
wholesale murder, in which Christians are com¬ 
pelled to slay their own brethren. 

b. The Church of Jesus Christ is the great agency 
of God to promote peace on earth. She must 
reflect in her own life and in all her activities 
the peace that she enjoys in virtue of the sav¬ 
ing work of the Prince of Peace. 





190 


SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 

_____ L 


c. A Christian is in duty bound to obey the gov¬ 
ernment only as long as its demands do not go 
contrary to the Word of God. If these do con¬ 
flict with the clear precepts of the Bible, he 
must refuse obedience, must obey God rather 
than man. 


XIII RESOLVED, THAT THE PULPIT IS MORE 

' INFLUENTIAL THAN THE PRESS. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. The pulpit comes to man with the Word of God, 
clothed with divine authority. This Word is 
binding on the conscience and cannot be set 
aside at will. 

b. The pulpit is more influential than the press in 
so far as the spoken word is more effective 
than the written word. The facial expression 
of the speaker, his tone of voice, his gestures, 
etc., all help to drive the message home. 

c. Moreover, the pulpit comes to man with a word 
that is God’s agency for the conversion of sin¬ 
ners. It transforms the entire life of man and 
makes him the salt of the earth and the light 
of the world. 

2. Negative: 

a. While the pulpit is limited to the discussion of 
religious subjects, the press is not so restricted. 
It touches the entire life of man in all its rela¬ 
tions and discusses this from every possible 
angle. 

b. The message of the press is not as evanescent 
as that of the pulpit. Man can read and reread 
it. He can turn to an article that was written 
months or even years ago and study it, while 
he possibly cannot recall as much as the text 
of the previous Sunday. 

c. The press reaches a much larger public than 
the pulpit does. 





SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


191 


XXIV RESOLVED, THAT THE CATECHISM 
CLASS IS A BETTER AGENCY THAN THE 
SUNDAYSCHOOL FOR THE INSTRUCTION 
OF THE CHILDREN OF THE CHURCH. 

1 Affirmative: 

a. Catechetical instruction is far more doctrinal 
than that of the Sundayschool, and it goes 
without saying that doctrinal instruction is 
just what our young people need now that all 
sorts of heresies are in the air. 

b. Catechetical instruction is adapted specifically 
to the needs of each particular church. We 
must see to it that our young people receive it, 
unless we are ready to give up our distinctive 
character and to lose ourseves in a colorless 
Christianity. 

c. Since catechetical instruction is generally given 
by the pastor of the church, we may rest as¬ 
sured that the children receive thorough re¬ 
ligious training in the catechism class. 

2. Negative: 

a. Sundayschool instruction is more abreast of 
the times than catechetical instruction. In¬ 
stead of compelling a child to learn past sys¬ 
tems of theology, the Sundayschool introduces 
it to the living truths of the Bible, leaving it 
to every age to build its own system. 

b. The Sundayschool is better adapted to the in¬ 
tellectual needs of the child. Its small classes, 
its careful grading and its improved historical 
methods, all give it a decided advantage. It 
realizes that the memorizing and parrot-like 
repeating of a catechism goes contrary to sev¬ 
eral psychological laws. 

c. The Sundayschool ministers effectively to the 
union of the churches. It emphasizes the great 
essentials of religion, makes children forget 
doctrinal differences, removes barriers and 
makes for tolerance. 




SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 


< 


192 


XXV RESOLVED, THAT OUR CHURCHES 
SHOULD ABOLISH THE DUTCH LAN¬ 
GUAGE IN THE NEAR FUTURE. 

1. Affirmative: 

a. The English language is the language of the 
land and we owe it to our country to employ 
it in our religious services just as soon as we 
can. The use of a foreign language perpetuates 
a line of cleavage that should be obliterated. 

b. By continuing the use of the Dutch language 
for a long period we are robbing our children 
of their spiritual dues. Many of them attend 
Holland services that mean nothing to them 
and are finally estranged from the church. 

c. The use of the Dutch language in our religious 
life retards our influence in this country. The 
result of it is that our people, that even our 
children, are not able to defend their position in 
religious matters, much less to influence the 
religious life of other round about them. 

2. Negative: 

a. The fact that a large percentage of our older 
people do not yet understand the English lan¬ 
guage makes it imperative to retain the Dutch 
for some time to come. It would be ungrate¬ 
ful and un-Christian to turn them out in the 
cold. 

b. For the sake of our principles it is desirable to 
keep up the Dutch as long as possible. Those 
principles are worked out in Holland theologi¬ 
cal books better than in any other literature. 
The continued use of the Dutch language in the 
churches will help our children to understand 
Holland theological works. 

c. Groen van Prinsterer once said, that “in our 
isolation lies our strength.” The use of the 
Dutch language will help us to maintain our 
isolation and to preserve our doctrinal purity. 




SELECTED LITERATURE 


193 


Selected Literature to be used in connection with 

the preceding Outlines 

HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY 

(1) Biblical History and Archaeology 

A. Edersheim—Bible History, 7 vols. 

A. Edersheim—Life and Times of Jesus, the Messiah, 
2 vols. 

P. A. E. Sillevis Smitt—Handboek voor de Heilige Ge- 
schiedenis, 2 din. 

Wm. Smith—Old Testament History. 

Wm. Smith—New Testament History. 

G. T. Purves—Christianity in the Apostolic Age. 
Conybeare and Howson—Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 
G. Wielenga—Paulus in Zijn Leven en Werken. 

S. Matthews—A History of New Testament Times. 

E. P. Barrows—Sacred Geography and Antiquities. 

L. Berkhof—Biblical Archaeology. 

G. Keizer—Bijbelsche Archaeologie. 

K. Wielemaker—Bijbelsche Oudheidkunde. 

(2) Church History 

W. Walker—History of the Christian Church. 

G. P. Fisher—History of the Christian Church. 

J. C. Rullmann—De Afscheiding. 

H. Beets—Geschiedenis der Christelijke Gereformeer- 
de Kerk in Noord-Amerika. 

H. Dosker—Dr. A. C. Van Raalte. 

G. P. Fisher—History of the Reformation. 

J. A. Wijlie—History of Protestantism. 

Ph. Vollmer—The Life of John Calvin. 

W. Walker—John Calvin. 

J. Kostlin—Martin Luther. 

S. Simpson—Ulrich Zwingli. 

J. Stalker—John Knox, His Ideals and Ideas. 

W. Walker—Greatest Men of the Christian Church. 




194 


SELECTED LITERATURE 


(3) American History 

H. W. Elson—History of the United States of America. 

A. M. Low—The American People. 

J. C. Ridpath—History of the United States. 

J. Gregory—Puritanism. 

D. Campbell—The Puritan in Holland, England and 
America. 

J. Fiske—The War of Independence. 

B. J. Lossing—A History of the Civil War. 

(4) Dutch History 

Davis—Holland. 

W. E. Griffis—Brave Little Holland. 

L. Penning—Ons Oude Nederland. 

Morris—Famous Days in Holland and Belgium. 

J. L. Motley—The Rise of the Dutch Republic. 

Biography 

For literature on the Reformers see under Church His¬ 
tory. 

Theo. Parker—Historic Americans. 

Thomas—Dictionary of Biography. 

Hawthorne—Biographical Stories. 

Education 

J. Kuiper—Geschiedenis van het Christelijk Lager On- 
derwijs in Nederland. 

Anema, Bavinck, e. a.—Christendom en Opvoeding. 

G. U. Wenner—Religious Education and the Public 
School. 

A. S. Draper—American Education. 

R. G. Boone—Education in the United States. 

B. K. Kuiper—Ons Opmaken en Bouwen. 

L. Berkhof—Christendom en Leven. 

M. C. T. Lectures. 

Politics, Political Economy and Sociology 
A. Kuiper—De Gemeene Gratie. 

H. De Wilde—De Antirevolutionaire Partij en Haar 
Program van Beginselen. 



SELECTED LITERATURE 


195 


W. F. Crafts—Practical Christian Sociology. 

W. F. Crafts—The Sabbath for Man. 

J. Bascom—Social Theory. 

R. E. Thompson—The Divine Order in Human Society. 

J. Bryce—The American Commonwealth. 

W. D. P. Bliss—The New Encyclopedia of Social Re¬ 
form. 

L. Berkhof—The Christian Laborer in the Industrial 
Struggle. 

Ethics and Religion 

G. Weitbrecht—Heilig Is de Lente des Levens. 

J. M. Buckley—The Wrong and Peril of Woman Suf¬ 
frage. 

W. Parker—The Fundamental Error of Woman Suf¬ 
frage. 

E. A. Wasson—Religion and Drink. 

W. H. Mallock—Critisch Onderzoek van het Socialisme. 
(Can also be had in English.) 

N. Porter—Books and Reading. 

T. H. Pattison—The Ministry of the Sundayschool. 

G. Smith—Short History of Christian Missions. 



CONTENTS 


HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY 

A. Biblical History 

Page 

I Israel’s Deliverance Out of Egypt. 5 

II Gideon and the Midianites. 6 

III David Persecuted by Saul. 8 

IV The Insurrection of Absolom. 9 

V The Division of the Kingdom. 11 

VI Elijah and the Baal-worship. 12 

VII The Reform of Josia. 14 

VIII The Building of the Second Temple. 15 

IX The Jewish War of Independence. 16 

X The Reign of Herod the Great. 17 

XI The Birth and Infancy of Jesus Christ. 19 

XII Jesus and the Woman of Samaria. 20 

XIII The Galilean Crisis. 21 

XIV The Raising of Lazarus.;. 23 

XV The Trial of Jesus. 24 

XVI The Resurrection of Jesus. 25 

XVII The First Martyr. 26 

XVIII Paul’s Youth and Conversion. 28 

XIX The Council of Jerusalem. 29 

XX The Work of Paul at Ephesus. 31 


B. Biblical Archaeology 

I Marriage Among the Hebrews... 33 

II Education Among the Jews. 34 

III The Military System in Israel. 35 

IV The Passover and Its Significance. 37 

V The Synagogue and Its Worship. 38 

VI The Scribes Among Israel. 40 

VII Pharisees and Sadducees. 41 

VIII The Great Sanhedrin of the Jews. 42 


C. Church History 

I Luther at the Diet of Worms. 44 

II Calvin and the Libertines. 45 

III John Knox and the Scottisch Reformation. 47 

IV The Society of Jesus. 48 

V The Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 50 

VI The Arminian Controversy and the Synod of Dort 51 




































II 


CONTENTS 


Page 

VII The Origin and Character of Methodism. 53 

VIII The Secession of 1834. 54 

IX Van Raalte and the Reformed Church in America 56 
X The Origin of the Christian Reformed Church. 57 


D. American History 

I Christopher Columbus and the Discovery of America 60 
II The Pilgrim Fathers. 61 

III The Puritans and a New England Theocracy. 63 

IV Social and Religious Life in Colonial Times. 64 

V Jonathan Edwards and the Great Awakening. 66 

VI The American War of Independence. 68 

VII Hamilton and Jefferson—a Comparison. 69 

VIII The Monroe Doctrine. 71 

IX The Cause of the Civil War. 72 

X The Emancipation of the Slaves. 74 


E. Dutch History 

I The Batavi, the Original Inhabitants of the Neth¬ 
erlands . 76 

II Early Missionary Efforts in the Netherlands. 77 

III Charles the Bold. 79 

IV The Causes of the Eighty Year’s War. 80 

V The Riots of the Image-breakers. 82 

VI The Siege and Relief of Leyden. 83 

VII The Assassination of the Prince of Orange 85 

VIII Prince Maurice and John of Barneveldt 86 

IX William III and John De Witt. .ZZIIZ’Z 88 

X The Establishment of the Kingdom. 90 

BIOGRAPHY 

I Aurelius Augustine. 93 

II Girolamo Savonarola . 94 

III Martin Luther. 96 

IV John Calvin. 98 

V Ulrich Zwingli. 100 

VI John Eliot. ZZZZZIZZZZZZZZ 101 

VII Count Zinzendorf. 102 

VIII Benjamin Franklin. 105 

IX George Washington. 106 

X Abraham Lincoln. 108 

EDUCATION 

I The Character and Value of Education 111 

II Compulsory Education. 112 

III Education in Colonial Times.. 114 





































CONTENTS 


III 


Page 

IV The Rise of State Schools. 115 

V The State as Educator. 117 

VI The Bible in the Public Schools. 119 

VII The Child and Religion. 120 

VIII Free Christian Schools for Covenant Children. 122 

IX The Struggle for Free Christian Schools in the 

Netherlands . 123 

X Our Christian Schools and Patriotism. 125 

POLITICS, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY 

I The Right and Desirability of Woman Suffrage. 129 

II The Abolishment, of Capital Punishment. 130 

III Civil Service Reform. 132 

IV Liberty of the Press. 134 

V The Separation of Church and State. 135 

VI The Power of Public Opinion. 137 

VII Calvinism and Politics. 139 

VIII Christian Socialism in the United States. 140 

IX The Evils of Modern Trade Unions. 142 

X The Organization of Our Christian Laborers. 144 

XI The Necessity of Reform in Sabbath Observation 145 

XII The Decay of the Family. 147 

ETHICS AND RELIGION 

I Should a Christian Attend the Theater?. 151 

II The Craze for Amusement. 152 

III Our Christian Youth and Amusements. 154 

IV The Choice of One’s Companions. 155 

V The Character and Influence of Good and Bad Lit¬ 
erature . 157 

VI The Sunday Newspaper. 158 

VII The Sundayschool. 159 

VIII The Work of Missions. 161 

IX The Work of Christian Charity. 163 

X The Character and Aim of Our Young Men’s So¬ 
cieties . 164 

SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 
I Resolved, That the Crusades Were Productive of 

More Good Than Evil. 169 

II Resolved, That the Banishment of Roger Williams 

Was Justifiable. 170 

III Resolved, That Evil Rather Than Good Preponder¬ 
ated in the French Revolution. 171 

IV Resolved, That Church Property Should Be Free 

from Taxation. 171 

































IV 


CONTENTS 


Page 

V Resolved, That the Chief Purpose of a Prison 

Should Be to Punish and Not to Reform. 172 

VI Resolved, That Compulsory Vaccination Is Desir¬ 
able .. 173 

VII Resolved, That the Jury System Ought to Be Abol¬ 
ished . 174 

VIII Resolved, That Liberal Laws of Divorce Are De-* 

sirable ......'.. 1J5 

IX Resolved, That a Protective Policy Is Better Than 

Free Trade . 176 

X Resolved, That Women Should Have the Ballot. 177 

XI Resolved, That the Legal Prohibition of the Manu¬ 
facture and Sale of Intoxicating Liquors Is Right 178 

XII Resolved, That the State Has the Right to Compel 

All Children to Attend the Public School . 179 

^ XIII Resolved, That Co-education of the Sexes in Higher > 

Institutions of Learning Is Desirable. 180 *- 

XIV Resolved, That the Reading of Novels Should Be 

Discouraged . 181 

XV Resolved, That the Modern Trade Unions Are High¬ 
ly Desirable... 182 

XVI Resolved, That Strikes Are Justifiable..-^.."U83 ( 

XVII Resolved, That the Introduction of the Machine Was^-l 

Beneficial for the Laboring Class. 184 

XVIII Resolved, That for Young People Life in the Coun¬ 
try Is Morally More Wholesome Than Life in the 

City . 185 

XIX Resolved, That Separate Young Men's and Young 
Women’s Societies Are Better Than Young People’s 

Societies . 186 

XX Resolved, That the Union of All Churches Is Desir¬ 
able and Practicable... 187 

XXI Resolved, That Religious Revivals Promote the 

Growth and Prosperity of the Church. 188 

XXII Resolved, That a Christian May and Must Take an 

Active Part in War When Called Upon. 189 

XXIII Resolved, That the Pulpit Is More Influential Than 

the Press . 190 

XXIV Resolved, That the Catechism Class Is a Better 
Agency Than the Sundayschool for the Instruction 

of the Children of the Church. 191 

XXV Resolved, That Our Churches Should Abolish the 

Dutch Language in the Near Future. 192 

Selected Literature to Be Used in Connection with the Pre¬ 
ceding Outlines . 193 


LR6 S 26 


G 113 


























•* % --5 

0> o " « * "O J.'O .«■'*♦ y>> .0’ c °"° «^ *0 ^ 

■ i •jc 5$SW > * v3 A* v. o ° 



<A , t 1 «* <£* 

*. O d* ♦W^J L * v 


... o V 

/ o *° %. ^ * ‘ 

' A 0 .. 4 ‘^**»«’> < ‘ ^ %. **<•>* 

v % jStsM/±*' s£> c. * 

* T\«k/w «> v, av * fflA sg" /A" ^.o Q 

: V ^ i^x„™,v»- 

• A v/V j o < V-^V. « Y/A$dsA\\V * ,- *t» if* 

, o *v ^y^xr * ^c / 3 •£> * * <$y *bc» o • 

<\ 'o • •*. * ,G V <y « *"» s 4 A <*'<>•** .0* * 

^t\ (j C° " 9 * ^Q < A t \.l» -6> Q> 0 « O *^C> 

f %, C u o 4* G° * 6 - * ° 

•*w oV'^»'. % 0 t o' 



> j. 0 ■v -. 

y o 0 ^ *'">*»%• <x l 

£° ^5> ‘'o^o 0 A? 

a/^ v * 

•• ^ <# *#. ♦; 

r V^ v - 



jA' « 1 • • 

*4* / 

»; «5°^> j.°> *^0HisW . 

^ ^ 1 • A° * ® « o 0 O -»,1- a- 

v .4LV)L% V V _*!.V 0 ' c>^ ^0 V 






• % # ^ 

; v\ v • 


'’o • * * *G 


^ o 

\ 4 vfvf» A 

- *>b^ :iM&:* +*■($ 


* ■$£’ ^ • 
4 .^y 




» 

o , 

k o *.^w;» ^o ',- w. o.> 

v •«•*«♦’ %,*•>'' A 0 ^, * •. o 0 A 

,0 ,’V', V V .’•»' CV jO »i^L'«. ' <% 

♦ • %<. av . A® ^* n cA ♦ 

- V^ v * ^y^y/yiZ * 

* cA •* 

A <" 




• o 

* ^ * 



Deaciditied using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 


<* ^ A v S&MfaT* ^ a 5 PreservatlonTechnologies < 


* «? ^ 

* ■> 


'y*^V A WORLD LEADER IN COLLECTIONS PRESERVATION 

111 Thomson Park Drive \ 

Cranberry Township, PA 16066 t 

(724)779-2111 H 

~ 4 ~ m » » V ✓” * 


V _ . < 


.' V 



* ~ ^ * 

A* .'gfeli*. ^ A' /. 




• * 

cy * 
v/v AT> 


* C S o \V A. * 

* A? v 0r>, « ^C/'Ujv^ * A v '*£*,. ° 

* -ay cf* ***wclSflr\ 'v- -o* °* 

,0* g°*°* ^b Ay •*■'»<, . 

♦ r, , c ° A* ♦WZ&£ r ^ O' • 

. # 4 frik" ^o* •■ 

>° b5^ ^ ’‘'^HlPv'* 4,0 ’’K .v - 

•* *t °o. V^V*' ,o° ^ '.T^V A- 1 ' °o *. 



o' H 0 



* C\ a0 -*•-•' 


'" A v % 

cvVa- *<*•„ <y .‘ J 
mat **$* - 


K W*VsV//A ° ^ S' o 
„ -v : aV^> *o 

*&&&** ,<y * » 


/IflMI 


TV.* A 



V *• .Tf*‘ .# 

♦ T> v* 

' A -s, » 


'».»* ,0 


* ^ V/ ^i> • 

* # V A 












































